DUKE 

UNIVERSITY 

LIBRARY 


FRIENDS  OF 
DUKE  UNIVERSITY 
LIBRARY 

GIFT  OF 

Dr.  Ernest  C. Hermann 


•,r.  • 


^Y. 

S- 

. ^J?  -. 


;^-- 


I - 


V 


<»  • 


Stv  . .. 


/ 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016  with  funding  from 
Duke  University  Libraries 


https://archive.org/details/fordmotorcartruc01manl 


Tlic  Ford  Power  Plniit. 


The  Ford  Motor  Car 

Truck  and  Tractor 
Attachments 

Their  Construction,  Care  and  Operation 


By 

HAROLD  P.  MANLY 


Author  of  “Automobile  Starting  and  Lighting,”  “Oxy- 
Acetylene  Welding  and  Cutting,  Electric  and 
Thermit  Welding,”  and  Editor  of  Revised 
Edition  of  “Brookes’  Automobile  Handbook” 


FULLY  ILLUSTRATED 


CHICAGO 

FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  & CO. 

Publishers 


Copyright  1917 
By  Frederick  J.  Drake  & Co. 
Chicago 


PREFACE 


“The  Ford  Motor  Car  and  Truck  and  Tractor 
Attachments”  has  been  written  in  response  to  an 
insistent  demand  for  a new  hook  on  the  construction, 
care,  operation  and  repair  and  the  auxiliary  uses  of 
the  Ford  motor  car.  This  car  has  come  into  such  wide 
use,  not  only  as  a pleasure  and  commercial  car,  but 
also,  by  more  or  less  conversion,  as  a light  truck  and 
also  a tractor,  that  the  mechanical  principles  of  its 
construction  are  being  studied  throughout  the  motor 
world. 

It  has  been  deemed  necessary  to  go  into  great  detail 
in  explaining  the  construction  of  the  power  plant,  for 
in  this  sturdy  little  machine  lies  the  source  of  the 
great  versatility  of  the  Ford  ear.  This  part  of  the 
book  is  somewhat  more  technical  than  would  be  neces- 
sary for  the  average  users  of  the  car,  because  the 
exact  possibilities  and  limitations  of  the  ear  as  turned 
out  by  the  makers  must  be  thoroughly  understood  by 
those  who  would  convert  it  into  a truck  or  tractor. 
It  is  not  written  in  technical  language,  however,  and 
any  owner  who  so  desires  can  readily  understand  all 
about  the  principles  of  construction  of  his  car.  Nor 
is  this  objectionable  in  any  sense,  for  it  is  self-evident 
that  the  better  one  understands  his  car  the  better  able 
he  is  to  see  that  it  has  proper  care — thus  adding  to 
the  life  of  the  car  and  its  constant  and  easy  operation 
and  decreasing  the  cost  of  upkeep  and  repairs. 

The  following  chapter  headings  show  the  scope  of 

5 


6 


PREFACE 


the  work : The  Ford  Power  Plant ; Transmission  Sys- 
tem; Driving  and  Control;  Upkeep  and  Care;  Power 
Plant  Repair;  Transmission  and  Running  Gear  Ad- 
justments ; Troubles,  Symptoms  and  Remedies ; Elec- 
tric Starting  and  Lighting ; Truck  and  Tractor 
Attachments. 

Every  part  of  the  book  is  fully  illustrated  and 
those  who  desire  to  study  deeper  into  the  electrical 
principles  involved  in  the  ignition  and  starting  and 
lighting  systems,  will  find  wiring  diagrams  which  will 
prove  of  great  assistance.  Valuable  information  in 
regard  to  tires  and  their  repair  has  been  inc-luded. 

The  author  desires  to  express  his  thanks  to  the 
Engineers  of  the  Ford  Motor  Company  for  assistance 
in  the  preparation  of  the  work  and  especially  for 
allowing  the  use  of  many  of  their  original  drawings 
and  designs  from  which  the  illustrations  for  this  hook 
have  been  made.  It  is  doubtful  if  such  a thorough 
and  authoritative  presentation  of  the  subject  could 
have  been  made  without  their  assistance. 

The  Author. 


CONTENTS 


CHAP  TEE  I PAGE 

The  Ford  Power  Plant 9 

CHAPTEE  II 

The  Ford  Transmission  System 52 

CHAPTEE  III 

Driving  and  Control 77 

CHAPTEE  IV 

Upkeep  and  Care 105 

CHAPTEE  V 

Power  Plant  Eepair 125 

CHAPTEE  VI 

Transmission  and  Eunning  Gear  Adjustments 156 

CHAPTEE  VII 

Troubles,  Symptoms  and  Eemedies 175 

CHAPTEE  VIII 

Electric  Starting  and  Lighting 204 

CHAPTEE  IX 

Truck  and  Tractor  Attachments 235 


Index 


253 


r 


I 


y 


THE  FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  EORD  POWER  PLANT 

When  liquid  gasoline  is  turned  to  a vapor  or  gas 
and  mixed  with  air  the  mixture  burns  very  easily.  If 
this  gasoline  and  air  vapor  is  compressed  into  a small 
space  it  will  ignite  and  burn  so  rapidly  that  the  action 
is  like  an  explosion.  While  burning,  this  mixture 
increases  in  volume  and  the  resulting  pressure  is  made 
to  do  the  work  of  driving  the  car. 

. In  order  to  use  the  force  of  this  explosive  burning 
the  mixture  of  gasoline  vapor  and  air  is  placed  in 
the  cylinder  of  an  engine.  The  upper  end  of  this  cyl- 
inder is  closed  and  the  lower  end  is  open  as  shown 
in  Figure  1.  In  the  lower  end  is  a piston  which  makes 
a gas  tight  fit  in  the  cylinder,  yet  slides  freely  from 
end  to  end.  The  burning  mixture  drives  the  piston 
down  toward  the  open  end  of  the  cylinder  and  this 
motion  of  the  piston  turns  a shaft  from  which  is 
secured  power  to  turn  the  wheels. 

Attached  to  the  engine  is  a device  called  a carburetor 
which  turns  the  liquid  gasoline  into  a vapor  and 
mixes  this  vapor  with  the  proper  amount  of  air  to 
make  a combustible  mixture. 

To  set  fire  to  the  gas  an  electric  spark  is  caused  to 
jump  between  two  metal  points  inside  of  the  engine 
cylinder,  and  in  jumping  through  the  mixture  this 
spark  ignites  the  gas. 

With  the  engine  running,  the  great  heat  of  the 
burning  gas  would  be  sufficient  to  destroy  the  lubri- 

9 


10 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


Figure  1. — Relation  of  Pistons  and  CranUslinft  In  the  Ford  Engine. 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


11 


eating  oil  which  is  necessary  to  insure  smooth  running 
of  the  mechanism.  To  preserve  the  oil  against  such 
destruction,  the  cylinder  is  surrounded  with  water 
and  by  means  of  this  water  excess  heat  is  carried 
away  and  dissipated  into  the  outside  air. 

The  Ford  car  may  be  divided,  for  convenience  of 
explanation,  into  five  parts.  With  one  of  these  parts, 
the  body,  we  are  not  concerned  to  such  a great  extent 
as  with  the  remaining  four  which,  taken  together,  are 
called  the  chassis. 

The  chassis  is  composed  of  the  power  plant,  the 
drive  system,  the  running  gear  and  the  control.  The 
power  plant  includes  the  engine  and  all  the  parts  that 
make  or  help  to  make  power.  It  is  that  part  of  the 
car  located  ahead  of  the  dash  and  underneath  the 
engine  hood.  The  drive  system  includes  all  of  the 
parts  that  receive  power  and  deliver  it  to  the  driving 
wheels.  These  parts  extend  from  the  rear  end  of  the 
power  plant  back  to  the  wheels  and  underneath  the 
body.  The  running  gear  includes  all  of  the  parts 
that  support  and  carry  the  first  two  divisions  of  the 
chassis  as  well  as  the  car  body.  The  control  includes 
all  of  the  parts  that  allow  the  driver  to  make  the  car 
start  or  stop,  to  turn  around  or  go  faster  or  slower. 
Each  of  these  principal  units  is  made  up  of  smaller 
parts  whose  disposition  in  the  chassis  is  shown  in 
Figure  2. 

THE  ENGINE 

The  mixture  of  gasoline  and  air  furnished  by  the 
carburetor  passes  into  the  space  left  between  the  top 
of  the  piston  and  the  closed  end,  or  head,  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  spark  then  sets  fire  to  the  gas  and  expansion 
takes  place  with  the  burning.  This  expansion  pushes 


THE  FORD  POWER  PL^NT 


13 


the  piston  toward  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder,  and 
if  there  were  no  parts  to  prevent  it,  the  piston  would 
be  forced  completely  out  of  the  open  end. 

To  prevent  the  piston  from  leaving  the  cylinder  a 
steel  pin  is  passed  through  the  piston  walls  from  one 
side  to  the  other.  A long  straight  rod  with  a hearing 
at  each  of  its  ends  is  attached  to  the  steel  pin  at  the 
top  and  to  a crank  below.  When  the  piston  moves 
away  from  the  closed  end  of  the  cylinder  it  pushes  on 


Figure  3. — Crankshaft  and  Connecting  Rod. 


the  rod  and  the  crank  is  turned.  The  crank  is  at- 
tached to  a shaft  and  the  up  and  down  motion  of  the 
piston  is  changed  to  a rotary  motion  of  the  shaft. 
This  long  connecting  rod  and  the  crankshaft  are  shown 
in  Figure  3. 

Flywheel. — The  cylinder  is  closed  at  the  upper  end 
only  and  the  piston  receives  power  from  the  burning 
gas  only  on  top.  Therefore,  a gasoline  engine  delivers 
power  only  while  the  piston  is  traveling  down  toward 
the  open  end  of  the  cylinder. 

In  order  to  force  the  piston  back  into  the  cylinder 
so  that  another  power  stroke  may  be  secured  a heavy 
wheel  is  fastened  to  the  rear  end  of  the  crankshaft. 
This  wheel  is  called  the  flywheel.  When  the  piston 
causes  the  crankshaft  to  turn,  the  flywheel  is  revolved. 
Much  force  of  the  burning  gas  goes  into  the  work  of 


14 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


turning  the  flywheel,  but  when  the  piston  comes  to 
the  end  of  its  stroke,  the  flywheel  is  heai-y  enough  and 
has  momentum  enough  to  keep  on  turning,  and  after 
the  burned  gas  has  been  allowed  to  escape  from  the 
cylinder  the  flywheel  turns  the  crankshaft  and  forces 
the  piston  up  and  back  into  the  cylinder.  Without  a 
flywheel  the  engine  would  come  to  a stop  as  soon  as  the 
piston  was  as  far  down  in  the  cylinder  as  it  could  go. 

When  the  piston  is  pushed  back  into  the  cylinder  it 
does  not  go  all  the  way  to  the  closed  end  or  head,  but 
lea-  ' a little  space  above  the  top  of  the  piston.  This 
space  holds  the  compressed  mixture  of  gasoline  and 
air  and  is  called  the  combustion  space. 

Piston  Rings. — ^After  a gasoline  engine  had  been 
run  for  some  time  the  piston  and  cylinder  would  wear 
so  that  they  would  no  longer  make  a gas  tight  flt.  The 
gas  would  then  escape  between  the  piston  and  cylinder 
walls  and  the  engine  would  no  longer  give  its  full 
power. 

To  prevent  such  leakage  three  grooves  are  cut  around 
the  outside  of  the  piston  walls  and  in  each  groove  is 
placed  a cast  iron  ring  that  flts  snugly  at  all  points. 
This  ring  is  cut  through  on  one  side  so  that  it  will  open 
enough  to  slip  over  the  piston  and  drop  into  the  groove. 
After  the  ring  is  in  the  groove  it  tends  to  spread  or 
expand  and  when  the  piston  with  the  rings  in  place 
is  inserted  into  the  cylinder  the  rings  press  out  against 
the  walls  of  the  cylinder  and  make  a gas  tight  fit. 

There  is  one  ring  in  each  of  three  grooves  or  slots 
so  that  any  gas  escaping  past  the  first  ring  will  be 
stopped  by  others.  The  total  escape  of  gas  will  there- 
fore be  so  slow  that  the  piston  has  time  to  make  the 
full  stroke  without  great  loss. 

Although  one  end  of  the  cylinder  is  closed  it  is 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


15 


necessary  to  provide  some  way  for  the  mixture  of 
fresh  gas  to  get  into  the  combustion  space  in  this 
closed  end,  also  for  the  burned  gas  to  get  out  and 
make  room  for  fresh  gas.  The  gases  pass  into  and 
out  of  the  cylinder  through  valves. 

At  one  side  of  the  combustion  space  in  the  cylinder 
are  two  round  holes.  These  holes  are  covered  by  cast 
iron  disks  and  to  each  disk  is  fastened  one  end  of  a 
steel  rod  with  the  end  of  the  rod  in  the  exact  center 
of  the  disk. 

This  form  of  valve  is  placed  in  the  combustion 
space  with  the  rod  sticking  down  through  the  opening 
so  that  with  the  lower  end  of  the  rod  pulled  down  the 
disk  is  held  tightly  over  the  hole  and  makes  the  com- 
bustion space  gas  tight.  When  gas  is  to  pass  into  or 
out  of  the  cylinder,  the  lower  end  of  the  rod  is  pushed 
up,  thus  forcing  the.  disk  away  from  the  hole  and 
opening  the  valve.  One  valve  opens  to  let  fresh  gas 
into  the  cylinder  and  is  called  the  inlet  valve ; the 
other  lets  burned  gas  out  and  is  called  the  exhaust 
valve. 

Stroke  and  Revolution. — ^When  the  piston  moves 
from  either  end  of  the  cylinder  to  the  other  end  it 
has  made  one  stroke ; that  is  to  say,  from  the  top  of  the 
cylinder  to  the  bottom  is  one  stroke  and  from  the 
bottom  back  to  the  top  is  another  stroke. 

The  crankshaft  and  flywheel  make  one  complete 
turn  or  revolution  for  two  strokes  of  the  piston.  The 
piston  makes  one  down-stroke  and  one  up-stroke  while 
the  flywheel  turns  around  once. 

THE  POWER  ELEMENTS  OF  AN  ENGINE 

Inlet  Stroke. — When  the  engine  is  to  be  started  it  is 
first  necessary  to  fill  the  combustion  space  with  fresh 


16 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


gas.  This  is  done  by  turning  the  crankshaft  until  the 
piston  is  as  near  the  cylinder  head  as  it  will  go,  at 
which  time  the  inlet  valve  opens.  By  turning  the 
crankshaft  still  farther  the  piston  is  drawn  back 
toward  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder. 

The  hole  which  was  closed  by  the  inlet  valve  con- 
nects with  a pipe  that  leads  to  the  carburetor,  and 
as  the  piston  moves  toward  the  lower  end  of  the  cylin- 
der, it  draws  in  a charge  of  fresh  gas.  The  stroke  that 
fills  the  cylinder  with  fresh  gas  is  called  the  inlet 
stroke  or  the  suction  stroke. 

Compression  Stroke. — At  the  end  of  the  inlet  stroke, 
when  the  cylinder  has  received  all  the  gas  that  it  will 
hold,  the  inlet  valve  closes.  At  this  time  the  exhaust 
valve  is  also  tightly  closed.  The  crankshaft  continues 
to  turn  until  the  piston  is  for  the  second  time  forced 
back  as  near  the  cylinder  head  as  it  will  go. 

Since  both  valves  are  closed,  the  cylinder  full  of 
fresh  gas  is  now  compressed  into  the  combustion  space. 
When  the  gas  is  compressed  it  becomes  highly  inflam- 
mable and  burns  with  generation  of  great  pressure. 

When  the  piston  has  been  forced  as  near  the  cylinder 
head  as  it  will  go,  a spark  sets  Are  to  the  gas.  The 
position  of  the  piston  in  the  cylinder  when  the  gas  is 
flred  is  called  the  firing  point  and  the  stroke  that 
compressed  the  gas  is  called  the  compression  stroke. 

Power  Stroke. — The  gas  now  buims  so  fast  that  it 
is  like  an  explosion  and  the  resulting  pressure  drives 
the  piston  back  toward  the  open  end  of  the  cylinder. 
The  piston  pushes  on  the  connecting  rod,  the  connect- 
ing rod  turns  the  crankshaft  and  the  crankshaft  turns 
the  flywheel.  This  stroke  is  called  the  power  stroke. 

During  the  inlet  and  compression  strokes  the  crank- 
shaft was  turned  by  hand  or  by  the  starter  to  bring 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


17 


the  engine  to  the  first  power  stroke.  By  turning  the 
crankshaft  the  engine  is  made  to  go  through  the  inlet 
and  compression  strokes  and  come  to  the  firing  point. 
As  soon  as  the  compressed  gas  begins  to  burn  the 
piston  makes  the  crankshaft  turn  faster  than  the  oper- 
ator or  starter  can  turn  it  and  a rachet  automatically 
releases  the  crankshaft.  The  momentum  of  the  fly- 
wheel then  keeps  the  engine  running  steadily  until  it 
reaches  another  power  stroke. 

Exhaust  Stroke. — At  the  end  of  the  power  stroke, 
when  the  piston  has  moved  as  far  as  the  connecting 
rod  and  crankshaft  will  let  it  go,  no  more  work  can 
be  secured  from  the  expanding  gas,  so  the  next  thing 
to  do  is  to  get  rid  of  the  old  gas  and  allow  another 
change  of  fresh  mixture  to  be  drawn  into  the  cylinder. 
In  order  to  get  rid  of  the  burned  gas  the  exhaust 
valve  opens,  and  as  the  piston  is  forced  back  into  the 
cylinder  by  the  flywheel,  it  pushes  the  old  gas  ahead 
of  it  and  out  through  the  valve  opening. 

This  stroke  of  the  engine  is  called  the  exhaust  stroke 
and  it  ends  when  the  piston  is  as  near  the  cylinder 
head  as  it  will  go.  The  piston  is  then  in  a position  to 
start  another  inlet  stroke  and  the  engine  repeats  the 
same  series  of  operations  as  long  as  it  continues  to  run. 

The  Four-Cycle  Engine. — There  is  but  one  of  the 
four  strokes  in  any  one  cylinder  which  delivers  power 
to  the  crankshaft.  The  crankshaft  and  the  flywheel 
turn  around  twice  for  each  power  stroke  because  the 
full  turn  of  the  crankshaft  makes  the  piston  move 
away  from  the  cylinder  head  on  the  inlet  stroke  and 
back  on  the  compression  stroke,  while  the  next  full 
turn  of  the  crankshaft  lets  the  piston  move  away  from 
the  cylinder  head  on  the  power  stroke  and  back  on 
the  exhaust  stroke. 


18 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


There  are  four  strokes,  the  inlet,  the  compression, 
the  power  and  the  exhaust,  and  these  strokes  are  then 
repeated  over  and  over  again  in  the  same  regular 
order. 

Any  series  of  events  that  happens  in  a regular  order 
and  then  repeats  in  the  same  order  is  called  a cycle. 
The  four  strokes  of  the  engine  form  a cycle  and  this 
type  of  engine  is  called  a four-cycle  engine  or  a four- 
stroke  cycle  engine. 

VALVES 

The  type  of  valve  used  in  the  Ford  engine  is  called 
a poppett  valve  and  in  the  form  adopted  the  edge  of 
the  valve  and  that  part  of  the  cylinder  into  which  it 
fits  are  tapered  so  that  as  the  valve  closes  it  drops 
easily  into  place.  The  rod  to  which  the  valve  head  is 
attached  is  called  the  valve  stem  and  the  stem  moves 
through  a guide  which  brings  the  head  onto  its  seat 
so  that  a good  fit  is  insured. 

In  order  that  the  valve  may  be  easily  mounted,  the 
cylinders  are  made  with  extensions  or  pockets  at  one 
side  of  the  combustion  space.  These  pockets  are  just 
large  enough  to  take  the  valve  head  and  allow  it  to 
move. 

The  valves  must  open  and  close  at  exactly  the  right 
time  during  the  movement  of  the  piston  and  the  rota- 
tion of  the  crankshaft.  The  poppett  from  off  valve  is 
opened  by  means  of  a cam  which  is  a small  piece  of 
steel  that  is  higher  on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  One 
cam  for  each  of  the  valves  is  fastened  to  a shaft  so  that 
all  the  cams  may  be  turned  while  the  lower  end  of 
the  valve  stems  rest  on  the  cams.  As  the  cam  turns 
the  stem  of  the  valve  is  raised  whenever  the  high 
side  of  the  cam  comes  around.  As  the  high  side  of 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


19 


the  cam  passes  away  from  underneath  the  valve  stem 
the  valve  is  pulled  closed  by  a spring. 

The  shaft  that  carries  the  cams  is  revolved  by 
means  of  a pair  of  gears,  one  of  which  is  fastened  to 
the  camshaft  and  the  other  to  the  crankshaft  of  the 
engine.  The  camshaft  is  mounted  directly  under- 
neath the  valve  stems.  All  of  the  parts  are  shown  in 
Figure  4. 

Valve  Action. — There  are  two  strokes  during  each 
full  turn  of  the  flywheel  and  in  any  one  cylinder 
there  must  be  a total  of  four  strokes  for  each  power 
impulse.  There  must  be  an  exhaust  stroke,  an  inlet 
stroke,  a compression  stroke  and  Anally  a power  stroke. 

The  exhaust  valve  must  open  during  the  exhaust 
stroke  and  the  inlet  valve  must  open  during  the  inlet 
stroke.  After  one  exhaust  stroke  or  one  inlet  stroke 
the  flywheel  must  make  two  complete  revolutions  be- 
fore another  exhaust  stroke  or  another  inlet  stroke 
takes  place  in  the  cylinder  being  considered. 

That  means  that  the  camshaft  must  turn  at  a rate 
such  that  the  exhaust  cam  will  raise  the  exhaust  valve 
and  the  inlet  cam  raise  the  inlet  valve  every  second 
turn  of  the  crankshaft. 

In  order  to  do  this  the  camshaft  must  turn  just  half 
as  fast  as  the  crankshaft  so  that  the  crankshaft  may 
complete  two  full  turns  while  the  camshaft  turns  once. 
This  will  bring  the  high  side  of  a cam  under  its  valve 
every  second  time  that  the  crankshaft  and  flywheel 
turn  completely  around.  To  provide  this  ratio  the 
gear  on  the  camshaft  is  made  just  twice  as  large  and 
has  just  twice  the  number  of  teeth  that  the  crankshaft 
gear  has. 

The  parts  that  open  the  valves  are  the  timing  gears, 
the  camshaft  and  the  cams.  The  valves  are  closed  by 


20 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


■Valve  Operating  Parts  of  the  Ford  Engine. 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


21 


coiled  springs  having  one  end  of  the  spring  attached 
to  the  lower  end  of  the  valve  stem  and  the  other  pressed 
against  the  cylinder. 

If  a cam  pushed  directly  on  the  bottom  of  the  stem 
to  open  a valve  it  would  of  course  push  sidewise  as 
well  as  up.  This  side  thrust  would  tend  to  bend  the 
stem,  and,  even  if  the  stem  did  not  bend,  a great  deal 
of  friction  and  wear  would  be  caused.  To  get  away 
from  this  wear  and  side  thrust,  the  lower  end  of  the 
valve  stem  does  not  rest  directly  on  the  cam  but  is 
operated  through  push  rods  or  valve  lifters. 


Figure  5. — Valve  and  Valve  Push  Rod. 


A push  rod  is  a piece  of  steel  about  four  inches  long 
set  into  a guide  so  that  it  can  slide  up  and  down.  The 
end  of  the  valve  stem  rests  on  the  upper  end  of  the 
push  rod  so  that  when  the  cam  raises  the  rod,  the  rod 
in  turn  raises  the  valve.  These  parts  are  shown  in 
Figure  5. 

The  Four-Cylinder  Engine. — It  will  be  noted  that 
in  the  engine  as  described  up  to  this  point  we  have 
but  one  power  stroke  for  two  revolutions  of  the  crank- 
shaft and  that  the  remaining  three  strokes  consume 
power.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  a considerable 
space  of  time  would  elapse  in  a single-cylinder  engine 
between  successive  power  strokes  and  unless  a very 
heavy  flywheel  were  used,  the  engine  would  not  run 
smoothly  and  would  have  to  be  of  great  size  to  develop 
sufficient  power  for  the  work  of  driving  a car. 


22 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


These  difficulties  are  overcome  by  providing  four 
cylinders  which  operate  on  one  crankshaft  and  with 
one  flywheel.  The  power  strokes  occur  at  such  times 
during  the  revolution  of  the  crankshaft  that  one  or 
the  other  of  the  four  cylinders  is  delivering  power 
during  each  half  revolution  of  the  shaft. 

In  a four-cylinder  engine  of  the  four-cycle  type  the 
cranks  are  set  on  the  crankshaft  so  that  two  pistons 


1st  Yi. 

Revolution 

2nd  Yi. 
Revolution 

3rd  /:l 
Revolution 

4th  Vi, 
Revolution 

#1 

1 Power 

^ Exhaust- 

1 Inlet 

impression 

#2 

^omprcis'iofi 

^ Power 

^ Exhaust 

1 lnlc>t 

c 

1 Inlel 

t 

Compression 

^ Power 

^ Inlei 

^mpression 

1 Power 

^Exhausi 

Figure  6. — The  Relation  of  the  Strokes  in  the  Cylinders. 


are  up  while  the  other  two  are  down,  and  while  the 
first  two  are  traveling  down  the  other  two  travel  up. 

One  of  the  two  down-going  pistons  is  on  its  inlet 
stroke  while  the  other  is  on  its  power  stroke.  Of  the 
two  pistons  that  are  traveling  up,  one  is  making  a 
compression  stroke  and  the  other  an  exhaust  stroke. 
The  strokes  in  each  of  the  four  cylinders  occur  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  chart.  Figure  6.  It  will 
be  seen  that  during  the  first  half  revolution  of  the 
crankshaft  cylinder  number  one,  which  is  toward  the 
front  of  the  car,  is  making  a power  stroke,  cylinder 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


23 


number  two  is  on  compression,  number  three  on  ex- 
haust, and  number  four  on  the  inlet  stroke.  During 
the  second  half  revolution,  cylinder  number  two  is 
firing  while  the  remaining  cylinders  are  making  the 
other  three  strokes.  On  the  third  half  revolution  cyl- 
inder number  four  fires  and  on  the  fourth  half  revo- 
lution cylinder  number  three  fires  and  the  engine  is 
then  ready  to  repeat  the  cycle  in  each  of  the  four  cyl- 
inders. It  will  be  seen  that  the  cylinders  fire  in  the 
order  of  number  one,  then  number  two,  then  number 
four,  and  then  number  three.  This  order,  1-2-4-3,  is 
called  the  firing  order  of  the  engine. 

By  rearranging  the  cams  it  is  also  possible  to  cause 
a four-cylinder  engine  to  fire  in  the  order  of  1-3-4-2, 
but  no  other  firing  orders  are  possible  without  changing 
the  crankshaft  and  thereby  destroying  the  mechanical 
balance  of  the  engine.  The  arrows  in  the  squares  of 
the  chart  indicate  the  direction  of  piston  travel  during 
each  stroke  in  any  one  cylinder.  Reading  from  left 
to  right  it  is  seen  that  the  piston  moves  up  and  down 
alternately.  The  movement  during  any  half  revolu- 
tion, which  is  read  from  top  to  bottom  in  any  one  of 
the  columns,  shows  that  two  pistons  are  moving  down 
while  the  remaining  two  move  up  and  that  number  one 
and  number  four  travel  together,  while  number  two 
and  number  three  form  another  pair. 

The  Muffler. — At  the  end  of  the  power  stroke  and 
when  the  exhaust  valve  opens,  the  pressure  of  the  burn- 
ing gas  in  the  cylinder  may  be  as  high  as  eighty  to 
ninety  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and  this  pressure 
when  suddenly  released  by  the  opening  of  the  valve 
makes  a loud  report  which  would  be  very  objectionable 
if  allowed  to  escape  directly  into  the  air.  In  order  to 
prevent  noise  the  gas  is  allowed  to  expand  before  it 


24 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


finally  passes  away  from  the  power  plant.  This  expan- 
sion takes  place  in  the  muffler,  which  is  composed  of 
a series  of  passages,  as  shown  in  Figure  7. 

The  burning  gas  passes  from  the  several  cylinders 
into  a pipe  called  the  exhaust  manifold,  and  from  this 
pipe  to  another  one  which  leads  back  to  the  muffler 
proper.  As  the  gas  travels  through  these  pipes  it  cools 
and  expands  so  that  when  it  finally  issues  from  the 
muffler  it  does  so  in  a steady  stream  at  low  pressure 
and  with  very  little  noise. 


Figure  7. — The  Ford  Muffler. 


FORD  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION 

An  examination  of  the  construction  of  the  Ford  pow- 
er plant  shows  some  interesting  features.  Among  the 
most  noticeable  of  these  is  the  fact  that  all  four  cyl- 
inders are  made  in  one  piece  for  the  sake  of  rigidity 
and  prevention  of  misalignment  in  reassembling. 

The  cylinder  heads  are  formed  of  a separate  cast- 
ing, and  this  casting  is  bolted  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
proper.  Eemoval  of  this  head  exposes  the  interior 
of  the  cylinders,  the  tops  of  the  pistons  and  all  of  the 
valves,  as  well  as  the  passages  for  the  cooling  water. 

The  lower  part  of  the  engine  is  enclosed  by  a sheet 
metal  pan.  Figure  8,  which  extends  from  the  starting 
crank  back  underneath  the  engine,  transmission  and 
clutch  as  far  as  the  universal  joint.  There  are  large 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


25 


openings  through,  this  pan  at  a point  underneath  the 
cylinders,  and  by  removing  the  cover  plate  which  nor- 
mally closes  the  opening,  the  crankshaft  and  the  bear- 
ings at  the  lower  end  of  the  connecting  rods  are 
exposed. 

The  Ford  power  plant  is  secured  to  the  ear  frame  at 
three  points.  Two  of  these  points  are  at  opposite  sides 
of  the  engine  and  the  third  one  is  at  the  forward  end 


Figure  8. — Lower  Half  of  Engine  Crankcase. 


of  the  crankshaft.  This  front  support  is  in  the  form 
of  a bearing  so  that  any  twisting  of  the  frame  serves 
only  to  move  the  bearing  and  does  not  affect  the  en- 
gine or  power  plant.  This  principle  of  flexible  three- 
point  support  is  found  throughout  the  Ford  ear. 

CARBURETOR  AND  FUEL  SYSTEM 

The  carburetor  is  a device  by  means  of  which  liquid 
gasoline  is  turned  into  a vapor  and  this  vapor  mixed 
with  a deflnite  quantity  of  air.  The  type  of  instru- 
ment being  used  on  the  Ford  cars  is  illustrated  in 
Figure  9,  and  the  following  description  will  explain 
its  workings. 


26 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


Liquid  gasoline  flows  from  the  tank  through  the  feed 
pipe  and  enters  the  carburetor  through  the  float  valve. 
The  float  valve  is  carried  at  one  end  of  an  arm  and 
on  the  other  end  of  this  arm  is  a circular  piece  of  cork 
which  has  been  shellaced  so  that  it  is  impervious  to  gas- 


Flgure  9. — The  Ford  Carburetor. 


oline.  Between  the  float  and  the  valve  is  a pin  upon 
which  the  arm  hinges.  The  tank  construction  is 
shown  in  Figure  10. 

When  the  fuel  chamber  of  the  carburetor  is  empty 
the  float  will  fall  and  the  float  valve  will  be  raised. 
With  the  valve  thus  opened  the  liquid  gasoline  flows 
into  the  float  chamber  until  it  reaches  such  a height 
that  the  float  is  raised  and  the  valve  lowered  to  a 
point  so  that  it  closes  and  shuts  off  the  admission  of 
fuel. 


THE  FORD  PO’O’ER  PLANT 


Pure  air  enters  the  carburetor  and  passes  through 
a U-shaped  tube,  then  past  the  throttle  valve  into  the 
intake  manifold  and  thence  through  the  intake  valves 
to  the  cylinders. 


Figure  10. — Fuel  Tank  and  Sediment  Trap. 

Whenever  a piston  is  ready  to  start  down  on  the  in- 
let stroke  the  corresponding  inlet  valve  opens.  The, 
passage  leading  from  the  inlet  valve  communicates 
with  the  intake  manifold  and  through  the  manifold 
with  the  carburetor.  The  suction  created  in  the  cyl- 
inder by  the  piston  moving  down  from  the  cylinder 
head  draws  air  through  the  carburetor. 


28 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


The  lowest  point  in  the  U-shaped  passage  is  smaller 
in  area  than  the  other  parts  of  the  inlet  openings  and 
air  passing  this  point  is  therefore  traveling  at  a com- 
paratively high  rate  of  speed.  At  this  lowest  point 
is  an  opening  from  the  fuel  chamber  into  the  air  pas- 
sage and  the  size  of  this  opening  is  regulated  hy  a 
needle  valve.  This  opening  is  called  the  nozzle. 

As  air  passes  the  nozzle  it  acts  in  much  the  same 
way  as  would  air  in  an  atomizer.  A small  quantity 


Figure  11. — Exhaust  and  Inlet 
Manifolds. 


of  liquid  gasoline  is  drawn  through  the  nozzle  and  is- 
sues into  the  stream  of  air.  The  speed  at  which  the 
air  is  traveling,  combined  with  the  fact  that  the  liquid 
gasoline  is  drawn  from  the  nozzle  in  a fine  stream  and 
at  right  angles  to  the  flow  of  air,  causes  the  liquid  to 
be  broken  up  into  very  fine  particles  and  these  par- 
ticles quickly  turn  to  vapor  and  mis  with  the  incoming 
air.  The  proportion  of  gasoline  to  the  amount  of  air 
is  determined  hy  the  adjustment  of  the  needle  valve. 
The  proportion  of  gasoline  is  lessened  hy  turning  the 
needle  valve  down  or  to  the  right,  and  is  increased  by 
turning  the  valve  in  the  opposite  direction. 

After  the  air  has  passed  the  nozzle  the  proportion  of 
gasoline  vapor  to  air  has  been  determined,  but  the 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


29 


quantity  of  mixture  passing  to  the  cylinders  may  be 
varied  by  moving  the  throttle  valve.  This  throttle 
valve  is  placed  between  the  carburetor  and  the  inlet 
manifold  and  is  controlled  by  a lever  underneath  the 
steering  wheel. 

At  the  opening  of  the  carburetor,  through  which 
fresh  air  enters,  is  a second  valve,  and  to  this  valve  is 
attached  a rod,  or  wire,  extending  forward  to  a point 
in  front  of  the  radiator,  so  that  while  the  engine  is 
being  cranked  this  valve  may  be  partially  or  wholly 
closed.  With  this  valve  closed  only  a comparatively 
small  amount  of  air  can  enter  the  carburetor  and  the 
suction  is,  therefore,  greater.  This  suction  draws  a 
large  amount  of  gasoline  through  the  nozzle  opening, 
and  the  excess  of  fuel  makes  engine-starting  easy. 

Carburetor  Adjustment. — There  is  but  one  adjust- 
ment provided  for  a Ford  carburetor,  this  being  the 
amount  of  liquid  fuel  as  controlled  by  the  needle 
valve.  The  needle  valve  may  be  turned  one  way  or 
the  other  by  means  of  a handle  or  knob  on  the  dash- 
board of  the  car,  and  just  at  the  right  of  the  coil  box. 
The  appearance  of  one  type  of  adjustment  is  shown  in 
Figure  12. 

Turning  this  dash  adjustment  to  the  right  or  in  a 
clockwise  direction  closes  the  needle  valve  of  the  car- 
buretor, and  turning  the  dash  adjustment  to  the  left 
opens  the  needle  valve.  This  adjustment  may  be 
changed  while  the  car  is  running  on  the  road,  and  it 
will  be  found  best  to  make  a mark  at  some  point  on 
the  adjustment  to  indicate  the  position  at  which  the 
engine  runs  best.  In  cold  weather  it  will  probably 
be  necessary  to  turn  the  adjustment  about  one-quarter 
turn  to  the  left,  which  will  furnish  more  gasoline.  In 
warm  weather  the  gasoline  vaporizes  with  greater  ease, 


30 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


and  it  is  an  economy  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  liquid 
fuel  by  turning  the  adjustment  to  the  right  as  far  as 
possible  without  reducing  the  speed  of  the  engine  for 
a given  throttle  opening. 

An  excess  of  gasoline  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  air  in  the  mixture  gives  what  is  called  a rich  mix- 
ture. Too  little  gasoline  gives  a lean  mixture.  Too 
rich  a mixture  will  cover  the  interior  of  the  engine 


B C 

(Rich)  (Lean) 


Figure  12. — Dash  Adjustment  for  Carburetor. 


and  the  tops  of  the  valves  with  soot  or  carbon,  and  will 
also  cause  over-heating.  A rich  mixture  may  cause 
misfiring  at  low  speeds,  and  yet  the  machine  maj"  run 
perfectly  at  high  speed.  It  is,  therefore,  better  to 
keep  the  mixture  as  lean  as  possible  without  sacrificing 
the  power  of  the  engine. 

A lean  mixture  burns  slowly  and  for  this  reason 
such  a mixture  may  continue  to  burn  all  through  the 
exhaust  stroke,  and  until  the  inlet  valve  again  opens. 
Under  such  conditions  the  fresh  gas  in  the  inlet  mani- 
fold will  be  ignited  by  the  burning,  as  in  the  cylinder, 
resulting  in  what  is  called  a backfire  into  the  carbu- 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


31 


retor.  This  is  dangerous  and  may  easily  result  in  a 
fire,  should  there  be  much  grease  or  oil  around  the  car- 
buretor. 

Carburetor  adjustment  is  rendered  easier  and  free 
from  the  necessity  of  frequent  change  if  a hot  air 
tube  is  used  which  takes  air  from  around  the  exhaust 
pipe  and  leads  it  to  the  carburetor.  The  heated  air 
helps  to  vaporize  the  liquid  fuel  and  this  pipe  should 
be  used  during  cold  weather.  It  is  permissible  and 
sometimes  an  advantage  to  remove  the  hot  air  pipe 
during  warm  weather. 

It  is  noticed  by  experienced  drivers  that  an  engine 
will  almost  invariably  operate  better  after  sundown 
or  on  a foggy,  moist  day.  This  condition  is  due  to 
the  slight  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air  which  is  intro- 
duced with  the  mixture. 

Many  attempts  have  been  recently  made  to  reproduce 
these  favorable  conditions  by  the  introduction  of  wa- 
ter vapor  into  the  fuel  system  at  some  point  between 
the  carburetor  and  the  engine. 

The  fuel  supply  for  the  Ford  car  is  carried  in  a tank 
of  ten  gallons  capacity,  located  under  the  front  seat, 
and  mounted  on  the  frame  of  the  car.  From  the  tank 
the  fuel  passes  through  a stop  cock,  which  may  be 
closed  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  leaking  when  the 
car  is  to  be  unused  for  some  time.  Below  the  stop 
cock  is  a sediment  bulb,  and  on  the  bottom  of  this  bulb 
is  a drain  cock.  The  purpose  of  this  bulb  is  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  water,  or  any  solid  impurities,  from 
the  tank  to  the  carburetor.  Water,  as  well  as  other 
impurities,  is  heavier  than  gasoline  and  will,  there- 
fore, sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  bulb  and  remain  there. 
The  drain  cock  should  be  opened  at  intervals  of  about 
one  week  and  any  dirt  or  moisture  allowed  to  flow 


32 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


away.  A screen  is  placed  at  the  opening  from  the  sedi- 
ment bulb  to  the  fuel  pipe  and  in  ease  of  a more  or 
less  complete  stoppage  of  the  fuel  supply  this  screen 
should  be  examined  and  cleaned. 

The  fuel  tank  is  of  cylindrical  section  and  it  will, 
therefore,  be  found  that  the  depth  of  gasoline,  as  meas- 
ured on  a stick,  may  be  somewhat  confusing.  The  tank 
is  ten  and  one-quarter  inches  deep,  and  while  the  fuel 
level  shows  a little  more  than  one-fourth  of  this  dis- 
tance on  a depth  gage,  the  tank  is  only  one-fifth  full. 
The  following  table  will  be  found  convenient  if  marked 
off  on  a piece  of  wood  to  be  used  for  measuring  the 
quantity  of  fuel  in  the  tank; 


1 17/32 

2 9/16 

3 1/2 
4 11/32 
5 1/8 

5 29/32 

6 3/4 
711/16 
8 23/32 

10  1/4 


inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 


corresponds  to 
corresponds  to 
corresponds  to 
corresponds  to 
corresponds  to 
corresponds  to 
corresponds  to 
corresponds  to 
corresponds  to 
corresponds  to 


1 gallon 

2 gallons 

3 gallons 

4 gallons 

5 gallons 

6 gallons 

7 gallons 

8 gallons 

9 gallons 
10  gallons 


THE  FORD  IGNITIOX  SYSTEM 

The  Ford  ignition  system  is  entirely  different  from 
that  found  on  any  other  car.  It  consists  of  five  parts : 
the  magneto  which  generates  the  electric  current ; the 
induction  coil  which  changes  the  voltage  or  pressure 
of  this  current  to  one  of  sufficient  intensity  to  jump 
the  gap  in  the  cylinder ; the  commutator  which  deter- 
mines the  time  at  which  the  spark  occurs;  the  spark 
plugs  which  carry  the  points  between  which  the  spark 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


passes,  and  the  wiring  system  which  carries  the  cur- 
rent between  the  different  parts. 

The  Ford  Magneto. — The  Ford  magneto  is  a gen- 
erator Avhich  produces  an  alternating  flow  of  electric 
current.  This  means  that  the  current  passes  through 
the  wires  first  in  one  direction  and  then  the  other. 
These  changes  of  direction  occur  with  great  rapidity, 
the  rate  at  ordinary  car  speed  being  about  16,000 
changes  a minute.  Ordinary  lighting  generators  pro- 
duce a direct  current ; that  is,  one  in  which  the  fiow  is 
always  in  the  same  direction. 

That  value  of  an  electric  current  which  corresponds 
to  pounds  to  the  square  inch  in  measuring  water  power 
is  called  voltage,  and  a current  has  strength  to  pass 
through  an  air  gap  in  proportion  to  the  voltage  of  the 
current. 

The  current  made  by  the  Ford  magneto  is  of  com- 
paratively low  pressure,  ranging  between  eight  and 
sixteen  volts  under  ordinary  conditions.  This  voltage 
would  not  he  sufficient  to  jump  between  the  points  of 
the  spark  plug  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  pass  the 
magneto  current  through  coils  which  raise  the  voltage 
many  hundred  times  so  that  a good  spark  is  provided 
for  setting  fire  to  the  mixture.  These  coils  are  carried 
on  the  dash. 

The  Ford  magneto  consists  essentially  of  but  the 
two  parts  shown  in  Figure  13.  One  of  these  parts  is 
a set  of  sixteen  V-shaped  permanent  magnets  mounted 
on  the  flywheel  of  the  engine  and  the  other  part  con- 
sists of  a set  of  sixteen  electromagnets  which  remain 
stationary  and  in  such  a position  that  the  flywheel 
magnets  pass  very  close  to  the  electromagnets  while 
the  engine  is  running. 

An  electromagnet  is  made  up  of  a piece  of  soft  iron 


34 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


around  which  is  wound  a wire  or  ribbon  of  some  good 
electrical  conductor  such  as  copper.  This  wire  or  rib- 
bon is  insulated  with  a substance  which  resists  the 
passage  of  electricity  so  that  the  flow  of  current  wiU 
be  around  the  iron,  but  not  through  it.  Whenever 


Figure  13. — Permanent  and  Electromagnets  in  Magneto. 


an  electromagnet  is  moved  so  that  it  comes  close  to  and 
then  recedes  from  a permanent  magnet  or  other  source 
of  magnetism  a flow  of  current  is  induced  through 
the  conductor  which  is  wound  around  the  iron  or.  core 
of  the  electromagnet.  The  same  result  is  obtained  by 
moving  a permanent  magnet  so  that  it  alternately 
comes  close  to  and  then  moves  away  from  an  electro- 
magnet. 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


35 


The  Ford  magneto  is  so  constructed  that  the  ends  of 
the  permanent  magnets,  from  which  the  flow  of  mag- 
netism is  strongest,  are  caused  to  pass  directly  across 
the  ends  of  the  stationary  magnets  so  that  in  one  posi- 
tion of  the  flywheel  the  ends  of  the  permanent  mag- 
nets are  directly  in  front  of  the  ends  of  the  electro- 
magnets. When  the  flywheel  revolves  the  permanent 
magnets  pass  from  in  front  of  the  electromagnets 
to  a point  midway  between  them.  Then,  with  con- 
tinued rotation  the  magnets  are  again  brought  into 
direct  line. 

This  action  continues  as  long  as  the  engine  runs 
and  the  movement  of  the  two  sets  of  magnets  in  rela- 
tion to  each  other  produces  a flow  of  alternating  cur- 
rent in  the  conductor  which  is  wound  in  one  continuous 
length  around  all  of  the  sixteen  electromagnets. 

One  end  of  the  wdnding  of  the  electromagnets  is 
attached  to  the  metal  of  the  engine  while  the  other 
end  leads  to  a terminal  or  binding  post  which  appears 
on  top  of  the  flywheel  housing  and  directly  back  of  the 
fourth  cylinder  of  the  engine.  Should  a metallic  con- 
nection be  made  between  this  magneto  terminal  and 
the  metal  of  the  engine  it  would  provide  a circuit  or 
complete  electrical  path  so  that  a flow  of  current  would 
take  place  around  all  the  electromagnets  of  the  mag- 
neto, then  through  the  terminal  and  the  metallic  path 
to  the  metal  of  the  engine.  The  current  would  then 
pass  through  the  engine  to  the  point  at  which  the 
electromagnet  winding  is  attached  to  the  engine.  In 
the  complete  ignition  system  it  is  necessary  to  lead 
this  current  through  a different  path  so  that  an  igni- 
tion spark  may  be  produced  in  the  cylinders. 

Tke  Ignition  Coil. — In  order  to  secure  a current  of 
high  voltage,  called  a high-tension  current,  when  we 


36 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


have  one  of  low  voltage  to  start  with,  the  low  voltage 
is  led  through  a device  called  an  induction  coil  or  a 
transformer  coil.  Such  a coil  consists  of  a center  made 
of  soft  iron  and  around  this  center  is  wound  a quan- 
tity of  comparatively  large  insulated  wire.  It  is 
through  this  winding,  called  the  primary  winding, 


that  the  magneto  current  is  allowed  to  flow.  The  com- 
plete ignition  circuit  may  be  traced  in  Figure  14. 

Around  the  outside  of  the  primarj^  winding  is  a sec- 
ond coil  composed  of  many  thousands  of  turns  of 
exceedingly  fine  wire.  When  a current  of  electricity 
flows  through  the  primary  winding  and  then  stops 
flowing  or  when  a current  flows  in  one  direction  and 
then  changes  to  another  direction  the  soft  iron  core 
of  the  coil  becomes  a magnet.  Any  change  in  the 
strength  of  the  core  of  a magnet  induces  a flow  of  cur- 
rent in  the  fine  wire  winding  which  is  called  the 
secondary  vduding.  The  current  induced  in  the  sec- 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


37 


ondary  winding  is  as  many  times  stronger  than  that 
flowing  in  the  primaiy  as  the  number  of  turns  of  wire 
in  the  secondary  is  greater  than  the  number  of  turns 
in  the  primary.  In  the  case  of  a coil,  such  as  used 
for  motor  ear  ignition,  the  change  in  voltage  is  very 
great,  so  that  the  current  taken  from  the  secondary 


Figure  15. — Vibrator  and  Coil : A,  Switch  ; B,  Dry  Cells  ; C,  Con- 
denser ; D,  Timer  ; E,  Contacts  ; F,  Armature ; G,  Core 
of  Coil ; H,  Primary  Windings  ; L High  Tension 
Winding ; J,  Spark  Plug. 

winding  has  sufficient  pressure  or  voltage  to  jump 
across  the  gap  at  the  spark  plug. 

Vibrator. — The  construction  of  a transformer  coil 
is  shown  in  Figure  15.  It  will  be  recalled  that  current 
is  induced  in  the  secondary  winding  only  upon  a 
change  of  the  magnetism  of  the  core.  It  is  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  the  change  of  magnetism  that 
the  vibrator  is  employed,  and  the  change  in  this  ease 
means  that  the  core  is  first  strongly  magnetized  by  an 


38 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


unrestricted  flow  of  magneto  current  around  the  pri- 
mary winding  and  this  magnetism  is  then  destroyed 
by  a temporary  stoppage  of  the  current  flow.  B}"- 
referring  to  Figure  15  it  will  be  noted  that  the  -vdbrator 
hammer  is  directly  above  the  end  of  the  core.  It  will 
be  readily  realized  that  whenever  the  core  becomes  a 
magnet  it  will  attract  the  hammer  and  whenever  this 
magnetism  is  destroyed  then  the  hammer  vdll  be  drawn 
away  from  the  core  by  the  spring  to  which  the . ham- 
mer is  fastened.  In  order  for  current  from  the  mag- 
neto to  pass  through  the  primary  winding  of  the  coil 
it  must  also  pass  from  one  to  the  other  of  the  two 
contact  points  which  are  so  mounted  that  they  touch 
each  other  when  the  hammer  is  away  from  the  core 
and  so  that  the  points  are  drawn  apart  whenever  the 
hammer  is  drawn  to  the  core. 

A flow  of  current  passing  from  the  magneto  through 
the  points  and  around  the  primary  winding  mag- 
netizes the  core.  The  magnetic  attraction  draws  the 
hammer  to  the  core  and  separates  the  points,  thus 
interrupting  the  flow  of  current.  With  no  current 
passing  around  the  core  the  iron  is  no  longer  a magnet. 
The  spring  then  draws  the  hammer  back  and  the  points 
again  come  together,  thus  re-establishing  the  flow  of 
current  and  once  more  making  the  core  a magnet.  Tliis 
series  of  events  continues  at  a ver^^  rapid  rate,  with  the 
result  that  the  core  of  the  coil  alternately  becomes  a 
magnet  and  then  an  ordinary  unmagnetized  piece  of 
iron.  These  changes  of  magnetism  act  on  the  seeondaiy 
winding  to  produce  a momentary  flow  of  current  eacli 
time  the  core  becomes  a magnet  and  also  each  time  it 
loses  its  magnetism.  Each  of  these  impulses  gives  a 
seeondaiy  current  of  strength  sufficient  to  pass  be- 
tween the  points  of  the  spark  plug  and  each  time  the 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


39 


hammer  moves,  either  separating  the  points  or  bring- 
ing them  together,  a spark  is  caused  to  jump  at  the 
plug. 

The  Commutator. — From  the  explanation  of  the 
action  of  a four-cylinder  engine  it  will  be  plain  that 
sparks  must  occur  at  the  upper  end  of  the  compres- 
sion stroke  in  order  to  ignite  the  gas  and  start  the 
power  stroke.  It  would  not  do  for  the  time  at  which 
this  spark  passes  to  vary  because  any  variation  would 
result  in  the  spark  passing  either  before  the  compres- 
sion was  completed  or  after  the  next  dovui  stroke  had 
started.  It  is  to  time  properly  the  occurrence  of  the 
spark  that  a commutator  or  timer  is  useji. 

The  commutator,  as  showm  in  Figure  16,  consists  of 
a metallic  roller  attached  to  the  forvmrd  end  of  the 
camshaft  so  that  it  turns  as  the  camshaft  turns.  This 
roller  is  carried  inside  of  a circular  housing  composed 
of  insulating  material  into  which  are  set  four  metallic 
contacts.  The  roller  touches  these  contacts  as  it  turns 
inside  of  the  insulating  ring. 

To  each  of  the  four  contacts  is  attached  a terminal 
or  binding  screw  which  appears  on  the  outside  of  the 
commutator  case  and  from  each  terminal  a wire  leads 
to  one  of  the  four  coils  on  the  dash. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  the  camshaft  makes  one 
revolution  for  each  two  revolutions  of  the  crankshaft 
and  that  for  each  complete  cycle  in  any  one  cylinder 
the  camshaft  turns  once.  Bearing  in  mind  that  the 
commutator  roller  is  fast  to  the  end  of  the  camshaft 
and  taking  any  one  of  the  commutator  contacts  as  an 
example,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  roller  will  touch  this 
contact  once  for  each  complete  cycle  in  one  cylinder. 
For  each  power  stroke  required  in  any  one  cylinder 
we  would  have  a completed  connection  through  the 


40 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


commutator  to  the  coil  and  this  would  produce  a series 
of  sparks  suitable  for  igniting  the  gas. 

As  already  stated,  each  of  the  four  coils  is  connected 
with  one  of  the  commutator  terminals  and  from  each 


Figure  16.— The  Ignition  Commutator. 


of  the  coils  heavy  wire  leads  to  the  spark  plug  in  one 
of  the  cylinders.  This  spark  plug  ivire  connects  with 
the  secondary  winding  of  the  coil. 

As  the  roller  in  the  commutator  travels  around  the 
inside  of  the  insulating  ring  it  makes  contact  first  with 
one  of  the  segments  then  with  the  nest  one  and  so  on 
for  all  four,  so  that  with  the  commutator  in  use  to 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


41 


carry  electric  current  a flow  will  be  sent  to  the  four 
coils,  one  after  the  other,  and  as  each  coil  receives 
current  a secondary  impulse  will  be  sent  to  the  spark 
ping  attached  to  that  coil  and  placed  in  one  of  the  four 
cylinders.  Four  sparks  will  be  produced  for  each 
complete  revolution  of  the  commutator  roller  which 
requires  two  revolutions  of  the  crankshaft.  During 
the  two  revolutions  of  the  crankshaft  each  of  the  four 
cylinders  must  fire  once,  and  this  calls  for  four  sparks, 
one  in  each  cylinder. 

The  roller  in  the  commutator  is  placed  in  such  a 
position  on  the  camshaft  that  it  makes  connection  with 
one  of  the  contacts  each  time  that  a cylinder  is  ready 
to  Are  and  the  contact  with  which  connection  is  made 
is  the  one  from  which  a wire  leads  to  the  coil  used  with 
the  spark  plug  in  the  cylinder  that  is  then  to  Are. 
The  next  contact  in  the  commutator  with  which  con- 
nection is  made  must  be  connected  with  the  coil  that 
flres  the  next  cylinder  to  deliver  power,  and  so  on  for 
all  four  cylinders. 

The  four  coil  wires  are  attached  to  the  commutator 
terminals  in  such  an  order  that  the  cylinders  will 
receive  high  tension  current  through  the  spark  plugs 
in  the  same  order  as  the  firing  order  of  the  engine ; 
that  is,  the  first  cylinder,  then  the  second,  then  the 
fourth  and  then  the  third. 

Spark  Advance  and  Retard. — Even  though  the 
burning  of  the  gasoline  and  air  mixture  may  be  like 
an  explosion  it  is  far  from  instantaneous  and  an 
appreciable  length  of  time  is  required  for  the  flame  to 
travel  from  the  spark  at  the  plug  to  the  parts  of  the 
combustion  space  farthest  removed  from  the  plug. 
This  interval  of  time  required  for  flame  travel  re- 
mains unchanged  regardless  of  the  engine  speed;  in 


42 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


other  words,  it  requires  just  as  long  to  completely 
ignite  the  charge  with  the  engine  running  slowly  as 
with  it  running  fast. 

It  is  desirable  in  the  operation  of  an  engine  that 
a spark  shall  pass  at  such  a time  in  the  compression 
stroke  as  will  insure  that  the  mixture  be  completely 
ignited  by  the  time  the  piston  has  reached  the  upper 
end  of  the  stroke.  Inasmuch  as  it  takes  a certain 
length  of  time  for  complete  ignition  to  occur  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  spark  must  pass  at  the  plug  some 
little  time  before  the  piston  reaches  the  top  of  the 
stroke  because  if  the  spark  did  not  occur  until  the 
end  of  the  stroke  then  complete  ignition  would  not  take 
place  until  the  piston  has  started  down. 

As  the  engine  runs  faster  and  faster  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  cause  the  spark  to  .pass  earlier  and  earlier  in 
the  compression  stroke,  because,  while  the  time  for 
ignition  remains  the  same,  the  piston  takes  less  time 
to  reach  the  top  of  its  stroke  in  direct  rajio  to  the 
increase  of  engine  speed. 

In  order  to  provide  means  for  causing  the  spark 
to  occur  at  a time  during  the  compression  stroke  which 
shall  be  suited  to  the  speed  of  the  engine,  the  insulating 
shell  of  the  commutator,  with  its  four  contacts,  is  so 
constructed  that  it  may  be  turned  from  one  position 
to  another  by  means  of  a lever  located  underneath  the 
steering  wheel.  As  the  engine  speed  increases,  the 
lever  is  moved  so  that  the  contacts  in  the  commutator 
are  brought  into  such  a position  that  the  roller  will 
reach  them  before  the  piston  reaches  the  top  of  its 
stroke,  thus  bringing  the  spark  earlier  or  later  accord- 
ing to  the  position  of  the  commutator  shell. 

A second  advantage  provided  by  building  the  timer 
so  that  its  position  may  be  varied  is  that  starting  the 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


43 


engine  is  rendered  safer.  Should  the  operator  be 
cranking  the  engine  with  the  commutator  in  such  a 
position  that  the  spark  would  occur  before  the  piston 
reached  the  upper  end  of  the  compression  stroke  the 
ignition  and  rapid  burning  of  the  gas  would  drive 
the  piston  in  the  reverse  direction  and  cause  the  start- 
ing crank  to  be  thrown  in  a direction  opposite  to  that 
in  which  the  operator  was  turning  it.  Such  an  occur- 
rence might  easily  result  in  bodily  injury  to  the  person 
doing  the  cranking,  and  it  may  be  avoided  through 
moving  the  timer  by  means  of  the  control  lever  into 
such  a position  that  the  spark  does  not  take  place  until 
after  the  piston  has  started  down  on  the  compression 
stroke.  The  power  of  the  burning  gas  then  causes  the 
engine  to  run  in  the  proper  direction  and  take  up 
its  cycle. 

Spark  Plugs. — A spark  plug  consists  of  a hollow 
steel  shell  threaded  on  the  outside  so  that  it  may  be 
screwed  into  the  combustion  space  through  the  wall  of 
the  cylinder.  Inside  of  this  shell  is  an  insulating  core 
usually  made  from  porcelain,,  mica  or  stone  and 
through  the  center  of  this  insulating  core  is  a wire 
having  a terminal  at  its  upper  end  and  a point  at 
the  lower  end.  The  point  at  the  lower  end  of  the  plug 
is  brought  within  about  inch  of  the  spark  plug 
shell  or  else  a second  wire  is  attached  to  the  shell  so 
that  its  end  is  about  3^^  of  an  inch  from  the  end  of  the 
first  wire.  The  insulating  core  is  securely  fastened 
into  the  shell  so  that  when  the  shell  is  screwed  into  the 
cylinder  the  whole  arrangement  is  gas  tight. 

Current  Paths. — All  of  the  external  wiring  is  shown 
in  Figure  17.  Starting  from  the  terminal  of  the  mag- 
neto the  primary  current  passes  to  the  switch  located 
on  the  coil  box  and  from  this  switch  to  the  primary 


44 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


winding  of  each  of  the  four  coils.  Wires  lead  from  the 
other  ends  of  the  primary  windings  in  the  coil  to  the 
four  terminals  on  the  commutator.  Up  to  this  point 
the  current  has  an  uninterrupted  flow  and  might  pass 


Figure  17. — Ignition  Wiring  of  Oider  Models. 


through  all  the  coils  at  once  except  for  the  fact  that 
the  commutator  roller  can  only  be  in  contact  with  one 
of  the  segments  at  any  one  time  allowing  the  eiu’rent 
to  flow  only  through  the  corresponding  coil.  Current 
flows  from  the  timer  contacts  through  the  roller  and 
by  means  of  the  roller  enters  the  metal  of  the  engine. 
Traveling  through  the  engine  the  current  reaches  the 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


45 


magneto  again  at  the  point  through  which  the  magneto 
electromagnet  winding  is  attached  to  the  metal.  The 
coil  through  which  the  current  flows  will  cause  a spark 
to  be  produced  at  the  plug  in  the  cylinder  to  which  this 
coil  is  attached. 

The  secondary  current  induced  in  the  coil  through 
which  primary  current  is  flowing  passes  through  the 
wire  leading  to  the  spark  plug.  This  wire  is  attached 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  wire  passing  through  the  center 
of  the  core  of  the  plug  and  the  current  takes  this  path. 
Its  high  pressure  jumps  across  the  g^-inch  gap  and 
enters  the  metal  of  the  engine  through  the  spark  plug 
shell.  The  balance  of  the  secondary  circuit  is  com- 
pleted through  the  metal  of  the  engine  and  through 
that  part  of  the  primary  wiring  which  leads  from 
the  engine  to  the  coils.  The  two  circuits,  high  and 
low  tension,  are  thus  combined  through  a part  of  their 
length.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  fasten  one  end  of 
the  secondary  winding  to  one  end  of  the  primary 
windings  in  the  coil.  However,  no  difficulties  are 
introduced  inasmuch  as  it  is  entirely  possible  to  send 
two  distinct  currents  through  the  same  conductor,  pro- 
vided the  paths  of  the  two  currents  are  made  separate 
through  some  part  of  their  length. 

Battery  System.— The  standard  ignition  equipment 
on  the  Ford  ear  includes  only  the  magneto  as  a source 
of  current,  but  provision  has  been  made  for  the  addi- 
tion of  dry  cell  batteries  or  a storage  battery,  should 
the  owner  so  desire. 

One  of  the  coil  terminals  which  may  be  seen  on  the 
engine  side  of  the  dash  leads  to  the  switch  on  the  coil 
box,  and  should  a set  of  batteries  or  a single  storage 
battery  be  attached  to  this  terminal,  the  current  would 
flow  from  the  battery  through  the  switch  and  there- 


46 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


after  take  the  same  path  as  would  the  magneto  current. 
The  switch  handle  has  two  positions  and  w'hen  on  the 
side  marked  MAG  the  current  will  flow  from  the  mag- 
neto to  the  ignition  circuits,  and  with  the  switch  handle 
toward  the  side  marked  BAT  the  current  will  be  taken 
from  the  battery  and  sent  to  the  circuits.  Should  a 


battery  be  used,  one  of  its  terminals  is  connected  with 
the  above  mentioned  terminal,  while  the  other  side  of 
the  battery  is  attached  to  the  metal  of  the  engine  or 
of  the  car  so  that  the  circuit  may  be  completed  just 
as  would  be  the  case  with  the  magneto  in  use.  The 
method  of  connecting  either  a storage  batterj’  or  one 
or  more  sets  of  dry  cells  in  the  Ford  ignition  system 
is  shown  in  Figure  18. 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


47 


THE  FORD  OILING  SYSTEM 

The  Ford  oiling  system  is  so  designed  that  upon 
introduction  of  oil  into  the  engine  an  adequate  sup- 
ply of  lubricant  is  delivered  to  all  of  the  engine  bear- 
ings, to  the  timing  gears,  to  the  cylinder  walls,  to  the 
transmission  and  to  the  clutch. 

The  view  of  the  engine  shown  in  the  Frontispiece 
will  make  the  operation  of  the  oiling  system  clear. 
Oil  is  poured  in  through  the  breather  pipe  which  is 
an  opening  near  the  front  of  the  engine  and  on  the 
right  hand  side.  The  oil  flows  down  into  the  pan 
underneath  the  crankshaft  and  runs  back  until  it  rises 
to  a considerable  depth  in  the  depression  of  this  pan 
underneath  the  flywheel. 

On  the  right  hand  side  of  the  lower  part  of  the  fly- 
wheel housing  are  two  pet-cocks  which  may  be  seen 
by  looking  underneath  the  ear.  The  oil  level  should 
be  maintained  somewhere  between  the  pet-cocks.  A 
supply  of  medium  light  engine  oil  should  be  poured 
into  the  breather  until  it  runs  out  of  the  upper  one  of 
these  cocks.  The  cock  should  be  opened  and  allowed  to 
remain  so  until  the  oil  stops  flowing.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  the  oil  level  be  allowed  to  run  so 
low  that  the  lubricant  will  not  flow  out  of  the  lower 
pet-cock  when  it  is  opened. 

The  fl}nvheel  dips  into  the  reservoir  of  oil  while 
the  engine  is  in  operation  and  a considerable  quantity 
of  the  oil  is  carried  around  with  the  flywheel  and  dis- 
charged into  a small  funnel  carried  in  the  side  of  the 
flywheel  housing  at  the  right  and  about  two-thirds  of 
the  way  toward  the  top.  The  oil  that  discharges  into 
this  funnel  passes  through  a pipe  to  the  forward  end 
of  the  engine  where  it  flows  onto  the  timing  gears  and 


48 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


after  lubricating  the  gears  drops  down  into  the  engine 
pan.  This  pan  has  a slight  slope  from  front  to  back 
and.  under  each  connecting  rod  is  a depression  which 
fills  with  oil.  During  each  revolution  of  the  crankshaft 
the  lower  end  of  the  connecting  rod  dips  into  the  oil 
in  the  depression  and  the  oil  is  splashed  so  that  it  forms 
a mist  or  vapor  which  lubricates  the  cylinders  and 
pistons. 

Part  of  this  oil  mist  is  caught  in  small  troughs  lo- 
cated above  each  of  the  bearings  which  support  the 
crankshaft  and  above  each  bearing  which  supports 
the  camshaft.  The  oil  passes  from  these  troughs 
through  the  bearings  and  lubricates  their  surfaces. 

The  splash  from  the  flywheel  fills  the  transmission 
and  clutch  case  with  sufficient  quantity  of  oil  to  keep 
the  gears  and  clutch  parts  well  lubricated. 

THE  FORD  COOLING  SYSTEM 

The  heat  of  the  burning  gas  in  the  cylinders  of  the 
engine  reaches  a point  between  2,500  and  3,000  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  Lubricating  oil  will  not  stand  a temper- 
ature much  in  excess  of  five  to  six  hundred  degrees  and 
it  is  therefore  necessary  to  provide  means  for  prevent- 
ing the  temperature  of  the  cylinder  walls  from  rising 
too  high.  In  order  to  carry  away  the  excessive  heat 
generated  by  the  burning  gas  the  upper  part  of  the 
cylinders  is  surrounded  by  water.  The  part  of  the 
engine  casting  which  is  made  to  retain  the  water  is 
called  the  jacket.  The  cooling  system  is  shown  in 
Figure  19. 

Water  is  kept  in  circulation  around  the  cylinder 
jackets  and  is  then  carried  to  a radiator  at  the  front 
of  the  car  by  means  of  which  the  heat  which  the  water 
has  absorbed  from  the  cylinder  walls  is  dissipated  into 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


49 


the  air.  The  radiator  consists  of  two  parts  or  tanks, 
one  at  the  top  and  one  at  the  bottom,  each  holding  a 
quantity  of  water.  Between  the  two  tanks  is  a num- 


ber of  copper  tubes.  Crosswise  of  the  radiator  and 
surrounding  the  tubes  are  fins  of  thin  sheet  metal. 

Hot  water  from  the  engine  enters  the  radiator  at 
the  top  and  in  passing  down  through  the  tubes  loses 
its  heat  through  the  fins  and  the  surface  of  the  tubes 


50 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


until  when  it  reaches  the  lower  tank  it  is  comparatively 
cool  and  ready  to  be  returned  to  the  engine  water 
jackets. 

A large  volume  of  air  is  drawn  through  the  radiator, 
Figure  20,  by  means  of  a four-bladed  fan  located  just 
behind  the  radiator  and  driven  by  means  of  a flat 
leather  belt  from  the  forward  end  of  the  crankshaft. 
An  even  flow  of  air  is  drawn  through  all  parts  of  the 
radiator  because  of  the  fact  that  the  fan  and  the  rear 
side  of  the  radiator  are  enclosed  by  a sheet  metal  hood 
in  the  form  of  a funnel. 


Figure  20. — The  Radiator. 


The  water  is  caused  to  pass  through  the  cireiflat- 
ing  system  between  the  engine  and  radiator  by  thermo- 
sypbpn  action,  which  means  by  the  heat  of  the  water 
itself.  It  is  a well  known  fact  that  warm  water  will 
rise  through  cool  water.  This  may  be  demonstrated 
by  placing  a pan  of  cool  water  over  a burner  and  then 
throwing  in  some  light  material  such  as  sawdust,  when 
it  will  be  seen  that  a constant  stream  of  water  is  pass- 


THE  FORD  POWER  PLANT 


51 


ing  up  and  above  the  fire  and  down  around  the  cooler 
edges  of  the  vessel. 

This  principle  is  made  use  of  in  the  Ford  cooling 
system.  The  cylinder  jackets,  the  radiator  and  their 
connecting  piping  are  all  filled  wfith  water  and  as  soon 
as  the  engine  has  run  for  a few  moments  the  water 
in  the  jackets  becomes  much  hotter  than  the  water  in 
the  radiator.  This  heated  water  rises  and  passes 
through  the  upper  hose  connection  to  the  top  of  the 
radiator.  As  soon  as  the  water  reaches  the  radiator 
it  commences  to  cool  because  of  the  air.  Becoming 
cool  it  falls  and  passes  to  the  bottom  tank  of  the  radi- 
ator. The  hot  water  leaving  the  cylinder  jackets 
causes  a continual  flow  to  the  engine  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  radiator  so  that  the  circulation  is  main- 
tained as  long  as  the  cylinder  walls  are  hot. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 

The  transmission  system  includes  all  of  the  parts 
that  do  active  duty  in  carrying  the  engine  power  to 
the  rear  wheels.  In  the  case  of  the  Ford  car  the  unit 
that  first  receives  the  power  of  the  engine  is  the  com- 
bined clutch  and  change  speed  gearing.  This  device 
either  allows  the  engine  to  be  entirely  disconnected 
from  the  rear  wheels  and  their  driving  shafts,  thus 
allowing  the  engine  to  run  w’hile  the  car  stands  still, 
or  else  allow's  the  engine  to  be  connected  with  the  rear 
■wheels  to  drive  them  forward  at  a greater  or  less  rate 
of  speed.  The  transmission  also  serves  to  drive  the 
wheels  in  a reverse  direction  ■while  the  engine  itself 
still  runs  forward. 

The  gasoline  engine  requires  the  use  of  such  a device 
for  two  reasons.  One  reason  is  that  this  type  of  engine 
is  not  in  itself  reversible  and  when  it  is  desired  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  motion  of  the  ear  it  must  be 
done  by  means  of  a change  secured  through  gearing 
of  some  form.  The  second  is  found  in  the  inability 
of  such  an  engine  to  operate  efficiently  above  or  below 
certain  limits  of  speed.  It  is  not  economical  to  oper- 
ate a gasoline  engine  at  less  than  three  to  four  hundred 
revolutions  per  minute  and  for  mechanical  and  car- 
buretion  reasons  it  is  not  usually  advisable  to  attempt 
speeds  above  t^wo  thousand  revolutions  per  minute. 

If  the  engine  were  attached  to  the  driving  wheels 
with  a fixed  and  unchanging  ratio  of  gearing,  engine 
speeds  from  400  to  2,000  revolutions  per  minute  would 

52 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


53 


correspond  to  ear  speeds  between  four  and  twenty 
miles  an  hour.  This  is  obviously  too  limited  a range 
for  all  classes  of  Avork. 

An  engine  capable  of  delivering  twenty  horsepower 
at  one  thousand  revolutions  per  minute  would  only 


Figure  21. — The  Transmission  and  High  Speed  Ciutch. 

give  about  half  that  power  at  one-half  the  speed  and 
one-fifth  the  power  at  one-fifth  the  speed.  It  would, 
therefore,  be  impossible  to  start  a car  from  a standstill 
or  to  secure  good  pulling  at  very  low  speeds  unless 
some  means  were  provided  for  allovdng  the  engine  to 
run  fast  enough  to  develop  the  necessary  power  with 
the  car  moving  very  slowly. 


54 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


The  Ford  transmission,  shown  in  Figure  21,  is  of  the 
planetary  type  by  wFich  is  meant  a type  in  which  all 
of  the  gears  remain  in  mesh  with  each  other  at  all 
times.  This  type  is  distinguished  from  the  sliding 
gear  type  in  wdiich  different  pairs  of  gears  slide  to- 
gether so  that  their  teeth  engage,  the  pairs  being 
selected  according  to  the  road  speed  wanted  or  accord- 
ing to  whether  it  is  desired  to  go  forward  or  backward. 


Figure  22. — Planetary  Gears  in  Transmission. 


The  gears  in  the  Ford  transmission  are  arranged  in 
sets  as  shown  in  Figure  22  and  all  of  these  sets  revolve 
around  one  main  shaft.  The  different  sets  are  brought 
into  action  by  stopping  the  movement  of  the  parts 
Avhich  support  one  or  more  of  the  gears.  The  gears 
which  are  to  be  stopped  are  carried  on  parts  to  which 
are  attached  cylindrical  metal  drums.  Bands,  similar 
to  brake  bands,  are  placed  around  these  drums  and 
provided  with  attachments  by  means  of  which  any 
desired  band  may  be  tightened  to  stop  the  revolution 
of  its  dx’um  and  to  bring  the  necessary  sets  of  gears 
into  play. 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


55 


Mounted  with  their  centers  in  line  with  the  main 
shaft  of  the  transmission  and  in  line  with  the  crank- 
shaft of  the  engine  are  three  gears  two  of  which  are 
attached  to  two  separate  drums  while  the  third  is 
called  the  driven  gear  and  is  attached  to  the  shaft 
through  which  the  rear  axle  may  be  driven.  These 
three  gears  vary  in  size  but  are  all  fastened  together 
so  that  they  rotate  at  the  same  rate  of  speed  and  as  a 
unit.  In  mesh  with  these  gears  and  spaced  equidistant 
around  their  circumferences  are  three  sets  of  three 
gears  each. 

When  it  is  desired  to  start  the  car  from  a standstill, 
a pedal  is  pressed  which  causes  one  of  the  drums  to 
stop  revolving.  This  drum  is  attached  to  one  of  the 
gears  of  the  three  on  the  main  shaft.  The  pins  or  axles 
of  the  three  sets  of  three  gears  are  fastened  to  the 
flywheel  of  the  engine  so  that  when  the  engine  is  run- 
ning the  sets  of  gears  are  carried  around  on  the  outer 
edges  of  the  gears  mounted  concentric  with  the  shaft. 
Because  of  the  fact  that  the  one  gear  being  held  by 
the  band  and  drum  is  standing  still,  the  sets  of  three 
gears  must  turn  around  their  own  centers  in  traveling 
around  the  outside  of  this  center  gear,  and,  depending 
on  the  relative  sizes  of  the  stationary  gear  and  the 
gears  traveling  around  it,  a motion  is  imparted  to  the 
driven  gear  on  the  shaft  which  may  be  either  forward 
or  backward ; that  is,  in  the  same  direction  as  that  in 
which  the  engine  is  turning  or  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. In  either  ease  the  motion  imparted  to  the 
driving  shaft  is  much  slower  than  that  of  the  engine 
crankshaft. 

If  the  pedal  which  is  pressed  is  the  one  which  causes 
the  middle  gear  of  those  on  the  main  shaft  to  remain 
stationary,  the  car  moves  slowly  ahead,  while  if  the 


56 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


reverse  pedal  is  pressed  another  band  is  tightened 
which  causes  the  rearmost  gear  and  the  drum  attached 
to  this  gear  to  remain  stationary,  causing  the  car  to 
move  slowly  backward. 

The  Clutch. — After  the  ear  has  gained  some  momen- 
tum wdth  either  the  low  or  reverse  gear  in  operation 
it  is  desirable  to  run  faster  without  greatly  increasing 
the  engine  speed,  this  result  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  the  high  speed  clutch. 


oo 


Figure  23. — Transmission  With  Clutch  Drum  and  Discs. 

This  clutch  is  carried  immediately  back  of  the 
change  speed  gearing,  as  shown  in  Figure  23,  and  is 
composed  of  a number  of  discs,  part  of  this  number 
being  attached  to  the  engine  crankshaft  while  the  other 
part  is  attached  to  the  driving  shaft  which  carries 
power  to  the  rear  wheels  In  assembling  the  clutch 
the  discs  attached  to  the  engine  and  those  attached  to 
the  driving  wheels  are  alternated ; first  a drmng  disc 
attached  to  the  engine,  then  a driven  disc  attached  to 
the  shaft.  The  discs  are  normally  held  tightly  pressed 
together  so  that  when  some  of  them  revolve  with  the 
engine  the  others  must  also  revolve  and  power  is  thus 
carried  through  the  clutch.  The  discs  are  pressed  to- 
gether by  a powerful  coiled  spring  and  it  is  possible 
by  pressure  of  the  driver’s  foot  on  the  same  pedal 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


57 


that  operates  low  speed  to  remove  the  tension  of  this 
spring  from  the  clutch  discs  so  that  those  attached  to 
the  engine  may  rotate  freely  without  driving  those 
attached  to  the  shaft.  With  the  pressure  thus  removed 
from  the  clutch,  the  engine  may  run  without  driving 
the  car,  but  when  the  spring  pressure  is  allowed  to 
act,  the  driving  shaft  leading  to  the  rear  axle  is  caused 
to  rotate  at  the  same  speed  at  which  the  engine  crank- 
shaft is  rotating  and  the  ear  is  driven  at  a correspond- 
ing speed. 

The  slow  speed  forward  is  usually  called  low  speed, 
the  slow  speed  backward  is  called  reverse,  while  the 
speed  obtained  with  the  clutch  engaged  is  called  high 
speed  or  direct  drive.  When  the  spring  pressure 
forces  the  clutch  discs  together,  the  clutch  is  said  to 
be  engaged,  and  w'hen  the  spring  pressure  is  removed, 
the  clutch  is  said  to  be  released. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  any  of  the  speeds,  low, 
reverse  or  high,  that  the  car  speed  may  be  gradually 
brought  up  to  a point  corresponding  with  the  engine 
speed.  The  foot  pedals  which  act  to  tighten  the  bands 
on  the  drums  are  applied  by  a gradually  increasing 
pressure  of  the  driver’s  foot  so  that  the  gears  acted 
upon  are  not  immediately  brought  to  a stop  but  are 
caused  to  run  slower  and  slower  until  the  car  speed 
has  reached  a point  at  which  a complete  engagement 
of  the  drum  and  gears  may  be  effected.  In  a like 
manner  the  high  speed  clutch  is  allowed  to  gradually 
engage  by  slowly  operating  the  pedal  which  lets  the 
spring  pressure  act  on  the  discs  so  that  the  driven  discs 
slip  between  the  drivers  until  the  ear  speed  has 
reached  a point  suitable  for  complete  engagement.  The 
clutch  discs  are  not  damaged  by  such  operation,  pro- 
vided the  slippage  does  not  continue  for  too  long  a 


58 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


time,  because  the  entire  mechanism  operates  in  a bath 
of  oil  and  because  the  discs  are  made  from  hardened 
steel.  The  bands  are  lined  with  an  asbestos  fabric 
composition  well  suited  to  withstand  wear  and  fric- 
tion, and  when  this  lining  has  finally  been  worn  thin. 


it  may  be  renewed  or  the  whole  band  may  be  renewed 
at  slight  expense. 

The  change  speed  gearing  and  clutch  are  controlled 
by  the  driver  through  foot  pedals,  as  shown  in  Figure 
24,  and  by  a hand  lever  attached  to  a cross  shaft.  The 
left  hand  pedal,  when  pressed  forward,  causes  the  low 
speed  band  to  tighten,  and  when  allowed  to  come  aU 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


59 


the  way  back,  allows  the  clutch  spring  to  press  the 
discs  together.  The  center  pedal,  when  pressed  for- 
ward, tightens  the  reverse  band.  The  right  hand  pedal 
is  used  for  applying  one  of  the  brakes.  The  hand 
lever  is  used  for  applying  the  rear  wheel  brakes. 
When  pulled  about  half  way  back  and  held  there  by 
its  ratchet  it  prevents  the  clutch  spring  from  press- 
ing the  sets  of  discs  together. 

The  use  or  misuse  of  the  transmission  gearing  has  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  smooth  operation  of  the  car 
or  with  the  lack  of  smoothness.  With  the  car  stand- 
ing still  and  the  clutch  and  gearing  disengaged  it  is 
not  necessary  for  the  engine  to  develop  any  consider- 
able power,  but  just  as  soon  as  the  car  is  started  a load 
is  imposed  on  the  engine  and  it  is  immediately  neces- 
sary to  generate  more  power. 

For  this  reason  the  driver’s  fingers  should  be  on  the 
throttle  lever  when  the  low  speed  pedal  is  first  pressed 
forward.  As  soon  as  the  engine  slows  down,  due  to  the 
load,  the  throttle  lever  should  be  moved  down  a notch 
or  two  while  the  foot  pressure  is  gradually  increased  on 
the  pedal.  The  amount  of  pedal  pressure  and  the 
amount  of  throttle  opening  should  keep  pace  with  each 
other  so  that  the  engine  delivers  more  and  more  power 
as  required  but  still  does  not  reach  an  excessive  speed 
and  of  course  does  not  come  to  a stop. 

When  the  pedal  is  pressed  with  sufficient  force  to 
prevent  any  further  slippage  between  the  engine 
crankshaft  and  the  drive  shaft,  then  the  throttle  should 
be  opened  until  the  car  attains  a speed  of  about  six 
or  eight  miles  an  hour.  It  will  be  realized  that  the 
low  speed  gearing  must  now  be  released  for  a short 
interval  of  time  while  the  pedal  is  coming  back  into 
the  high  speed  position,  and  if  a throttle  opening  suf- 


60 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


ficient  to  allow  the  engine  to  drive  the  car  is  main- 
tained during  this  interval,  then  the  engine  will  race 
at  a great  speed,  doing  possible  damage  and  making  a 
very  objectionable  noise. 

To  avoid  this  condition  it  will  be  necessary  for  the 
driver  to  momentarily  close  the  throttle.  This  closing 
should  not  take  place  until  after  the  foot  pressure  has 
been  removed  from  the  pedal  because  if  the  throttle 
were  to  be  closed  with  the  pedal  down  the  engine  would 
immediately  reduce  its  speed  and  the  car  speed  would 
likewise  be  reduced. 

This  reduction  of  car  speed  is  one  thing  that  should 
be  avoided.  Another  reason  for  this  momentary  clos- 
ing of  the  throttle  is  to  allow  the  engine  speed  to  drop 
to  a point  that  will  correspond  to  the  desired  rate  of 
revolutions  after  the  high  speed  clutch  has  been  en- 
gaged. This  rate  will  of  course  be  much  less  than 
with  low  speed  in  use.  "When  the  pedal  is  released 
and  the  throttle  has  been  partially  closed  the  engine 
will  slow  down  and  at  this  instant  the  pedal  should 
be  allowed  to  come  all  the  way  back,  which  will  engage 
high  speed.  If  the  operations  are  carried  out  accord- 
ing to  the  above  suggestions  the  change  from  one 
speed  to  another  will  be  accomplished  without  its 
being  noticeable  to  the  occupants  of  the  car  and  with 
the  pedal  all  the  way  back  the  speed  of  the  car  may 
thereafter  be  controlled  by  moving  the  spark  and 
throttle  levers  until  such  time  as  it  is  desired  to  release 
the  clutch  for  one  reason  or  another. 

DRIVING  SYSTEM 

The  Universal  Joint. — ^With  the  car  traveling  over 
rough  roads  the  spring  action  allows  the  body  and 
frame  to  move  up  and  down  in  relation  to  the  wheels 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


61 


and  axles.  The  engine  is  mounted  on  the  frame  and 
must  therefore  move  with  the  frame  and  body,  but 
power  from  the  engine  is  carried  to  the  rear  axle  and 
wheels  which  do  not  move  with  the  frame.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  provide  some  form  of  connec- 
tion between  the  engine  and  rear  axle  which  will 
transmit  power  while  the  springs  are  in  action. 

At  the  rear  end  of  the  transmission  is  a joint,  called 
a universal,  which  connects  the  transmission  shaft 
with  the  propeller  shaft  which  runs  to  the  rear  axle 
and  this  joint  carries  rotary  motion  from  one  of  these 
shafts  to  the  other  while  the  shafts  operate  at  an  angle 
which  changes  with  every  movement  of  the  springs. 

This  universal  joint  is  composed  of  two  T-shaped 
pieces,  one  of  which  fastens  to  the  rear  end  of  the 
transmission  shaft  and  the  other  one  of  which  fastens 
to  the  front  end  of  the  propeller  shaft.  The  piece 
which  fastens  to  the  transmission  is  squared  and  fits 
into  a square  hole  on  the  end  of  the  transmission  shaft 
while  the  piece  for  the  propeller  shaft  is  made  with  a 
square  hole  which  fits  over  the  squared  forward  end 
of  the  propeller  shaft. 

In  assembling  the  universal  the  two  T ’s  are  placed 
with  their  heads  crosswise  to  each  other  and  while 
in  this  position  they  are  fastened  together  by  a metal 
ring  which  provides  a bearing  for  the  ends  of  the  T ’s. 
This  arrangement  effects  a double  hinge  which  may 
be  bent  up  and  down  or  crosswise,  or  in  any  combina- 
tion of  these  motions  at  the  same  time.  The  parts 
and  their  appearance  when  assembled  are  shown  in 
Figure  25. 

The  universal  is  enclosed  in  a hollow  steel  shell  of 
spherical  shape  and  this  shell  is  bolted  to  the  rear 
of  the  transmission  housing  by  means  of  a flange.  The 


62 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


shell  IS  fastened  to  the  forward  end  of  the  housing  or 
tube  that  encloses  the  propeller  shaft  and  the  driving 
force  from  the  rear  axle  is  transmitted  through  the 
propellor  shaft  housing  to  this  spherical  shell,  then 
through  the  transmission,  the  engine  case  and  the 
under  pan  to  the  side  members  of  the  frame. 

The  spherical  housing  is  free  to  move  inside  of  the 
flange  that  holds  it  to  the  rear  end  of  the  transmis- 
sion and  these  parts  form  a ball  and  socket  joint 
which  allows  the  rear  axle  to  move  up  and  down  and 


¥ O 

Figure  25. — Universal  Joint ; Completely  Assembled,  also 
Showing  Parts. 

also  allows  one  end  of  the  rear  axle  to  be  higher  than 
the  other  end  while  the  driving  effort  is  carried 
through  the  ball  joint  without  any  tendency  to  twist 
the  engine,  the  transmission  or  the  power  plant. 

The  Triangular  Drive. — In  order  that  the  car  may 
respond  to  the  action  of  the  steering  wheels  and  that 
it  may  run  straight  ahead  when  desired,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  outer  ends  of  the  rear  axle  and  the  rear 
wheels  themselves  be  maintained  at  the  same  distance 
back  of  the  car  at  all  times  and  also  in  line  across  the 
length  of  the  car.  This  distance  is  maintained  by  two 
long  rods,  one  attached  to  each  end  of  the  rear  axle 
and  both  running  forward  and  toward  the  center  of 
the  car  until  they  attach  to  the  forward  end  of  the 
propellor  shaft  housing  just  back  of  the  universal 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


63 


joint  and  ball  housing.  An  examination  of  Figure 
26  will  show  that  the  rear  axle  and  driving  shaft  form 
a unit  which  attaches  to  the  main  body  of  the  chassis 
through  the  universal  and  the  flexible  ball  joint  sur- 
rounding the  universal.  This  construction  provides 


Figure  26. — The  Rear  Axle  and  Drive  Shaft  Assembly. 


a form  of  drive  in  which  the  rear  axle  may  assume 
practically  any  possible  position  on  the  road  surface 
without  affecting  the  alignment  of  the  engine  or  of  , 
any  other  part  of  the  car. 

The  Diff erential.—When  the  car  turns  a comer 
the  wheels  on  the  outside  of  the  curve  travel  faster 
than  those  on  the  inside  because  both  inside  and  out- 


64 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


side  wheels  must  make  the  turn  in  the  same  length  of 
time  and  the  outside  path  is  longer.  The  front  wheels 
are  independently  mounted  on  the  ends  of  the  front 
axle  and  one  is  therefore  free  to  travel  faster  than  the 


Figure  27. — Working  Parts  of  the  Rear  Axle. 


other.  The  rear  wheels,  however,  do  the  driving  and 
cannot  be  independently  mounted. 

In  order  to  allow  the  outside  driving  wheel  to  run 
at  the  required  increase  of  speed  the  driving  axle  is 
made  in  two  parts.  The  outer  end  of  one  part  of  the 
driving  axle  shaft  turns  the  wheel  on  one  side  while 
the  outer  end  of  the  other  part  of  the  shaft  turns 
the  other  wheel.  The  inner  ends  of  the  two  parts 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


65 


of  the  driving  shaft  are  fastened  into  a set  of  gears 
that  receive  power  from  the  engine  through  the  pro- 
peller shaft.  This  set  of  gears  is  so  arranged  that  the 
driving  wheels  may  travel  at  different  rates  of  speed 
while  both  receive  power.  The  differential  gears  are 
carried  at  the  center  of  the  axle  together  with  the 
bevel  gears  as  shown  in  Figure  27.  Power  from  the 
engine  is  carried  through  the  drive  shaft  to  its  small 
bevel  gear  and  this  small  gear  turns  the  larger  bevel 


Figure  28. — Differential  Spider  and  Gears. 


which  in  its  turn  causes  the  set  of  differential  gears 
to  revolve  as  a unit. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  differential  are  shown  in 
Figure  28.  The  three  small  differential  gears  or 
pinions  are  mounted  on  the  three  prongs  of  the  spider. 
With  these  small  gears  in  place  on  the  spider  the  two 
larger  gears,  which  are  fastened  to  the  inner  ends  of 
the  axle  shafts,  are  meshed  with  the  three  small  gears. 
The  power  received  by  the  large  driving  bevel  gear  is 
transmitted  through  a metal  case  in  the  differential 
spider  and  the  spider  is  carried  around  with  the  large 
driving  gear.  The  small  differential  pinions  must  of 
course  travel  with  the  spider  and  in  traveling  they 
cause  the  axle  shafts  and  their  gears  to  revolve. 

It  will  be  seen  that  should  one  rear  wheel  with  its 
axle  shaft  stand  stiU,  the  other  wheel  could  still  be 


66 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


revolved  and  in  this  case  the  small  differential  pinions 
would  roll  round  and  round  on  the  gear  fastened  to 
the  stationary  axle  shaft  and  in  rolling  would  allow 
the  other  axle  shaft  to  turn.  This  is  the  action  that 
takes  place  in  turning  a corner,  although  neither 
wheel  comes  to  a full  stop,  but  simply  travels  slower 
or  faster  than  the  other  wheel. 

It  is  possible  that  the  action  of  the  differential  may 
be  more  clearly  understood  by  considering  the  follow- 
ing illustration.  If  two  loose  wheels  were  to  be 
mounted  at  opposite  ends  of  an  axle  and  a rod  passes 
through  between  the  spokes  of  one  wheel  and  across 
through  the  spokes  of  the  other,  by  pushing  at  the 
center  of  this  rod  both  wheels  would  be  revolved  pro- 
vided they  both  met  with  equal  resistance  to  rotation. 
Should  one  wheel  be  against  an  obstruction  that  pre- 
vented its  moving  ahead  then  the  end  of  the  rod 
through  the  spokes  of  this  stationary  wheel  would 
remain  stationary  and  all  the  effort  applied  at  the 
center  of  the  rod  would  exert  its  force  against  the 
other  wheel  causing  this  other  wheel  to  move  ahead. 

If  the  first  mentioned  wheel  should  stand  stiU  and 
allow  the  other  to  move  ahead  any  considerable  dis- 
tance then  the  rod  would  pass  out  from  between  the 
spokes,  but  should  the  rod  be  replaced  with  a wheel 
without  a rim,  or  with  a series  of  spokes  arranged 
around  a common  center,  then  it  will  be  seen  that 
another  one  of  these  spokes  would  engage  with  the 
wheel  that  moved  ahead  and  the  power  would  con- 
tinue to  be  applied  to  both  wheels. 

In  the  differential  the  two  wheels  mounted  loosely 
at  the  ends  of  the  axle  are  replaced  by  the  two  bevel 
gears  at  the  inner  end  of  the  wheel  shafts  and  the 
single  rod  or  the  assembly  of  spokes  around  a com- 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


6T 


mon  center  are  replaced  by  the  small  bevel  gears 
which  are  mounted  on  the  differential  spider.  The 
rotation  of  this  spider  by  means  of  the  large  driving 
bevel  gear  to  which  it  is  fastened  keeps  the  small 
bevel  gears  traveling  around,  and  if  either  one  of 
the  road  wheels  remains  stationary  or  goes  slower  than 
the  other,  then  the  small  bevels  in  the  differential  roll 
around  on  the  axle  shaft  gear  and  still  transmit  power 
to  both  axle  shaft  gears  at  all  times.  As  long  as  the 
car  is  turning  a corner  it  will  be  necessary  for  one 
road  wheel  to  travel  faster  than  the  other  and  the 
small  bevels  will  continue  to  roll  over  the  driving 
shaft  gears  in  this  manner,  but  whenever  the  car 
travels  straight  ahead  there  will  be  no  relative  motion 
between  any  of  the  gears  composing  the  differential. 

The  Bear  Axle. — The  rear  axle  of  the  Ford  car 
consists  of  two  mechanical  units.  One  unit  is  com- 
posed of  the  driving  shafts,  their  bearings  and  the 
gearing  contained  in  the  axle.  The  other  unit  is  the 
outside  or  housing  of  the  axle  which  serves  to  carry 
and  protect  the  working  parts  and  at  the  same  time 
carries  the  load  of  the  car  body. 

The  Ford  axle  is  of  the  type  known  as  semi-float- 
ing. A semi-floating  rear  axle  is  one  in  which  the  axle 
shafts  are  each  carried  by  two  bearings,  one  at  the 
inner  end  and  the  other  at  the  outer  end  of  each  shaft. 
The  driving  bevel  gears  together  with  the  differential 
are  supported  by  the  inner  ends  of  the  axle  shafts, 
while  the  outer  ends  of  these  same  shafts  carry  the 
wheels.  The  relation  of  each  part  to  the  other  is  shown 
in  Figure  27.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  long  axle  shafts 
are  supported  at  each  end  and  that  at  the  outer  end 
they  terminate  in  a taper  which  fits  into  a taper  hold 
in  the  wheel  hub. 


68 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


The  weight  of  the  car  body  is  supported  by  the 
springs  and  the  springs  rest  in  brackets  on  the  out- 
side of  the  axle  housing.  Passing  through  the  axle 
housing  the  w'eight  is  supported  by  the  bearing  toward 
the  wheel  and  through  this  bearing  by  the  axle  shaft. 
The  axle  shaft  is  of  course  supported  by  the  wheel. 

The  semi-floating  type  of  axle  possesses  the  advan- 
tage of  simplicity  and  light  weight  and  at  the  same 
time  is  the  cheapest  construction  to  manufacture.  It 
will  be  realized  that  a simple  and  light  design  may  be 
better  built  for  a given  amount  of  material  and  ex- 
penditure than  could  a heavy  or  complicated  p-pe  of 
axle.  The  most  noticeable  difference  between  the  semi- 
floating axle  and  axles  of  three-quarter  floating  or  full 
floating  type  is  that  in  the  semi-floating  axle  the  wheels 
are  carried  by  the  outer  ends  of  the  driving  shafts, 
while  with  the  other  t;\q)es  the  wheels  are  carried  on 
the  outside  of  the  axle  housing  so  that  the  drive  shaft 
is  left  free  to  carry  the  power  and  does  not  support 
any  appreciable  weight. 

The  semi-floating  type  of  axle  requires  but  four 
bearings  on  the  axle  shafts,  while  the  full  floating  t;vpe 
requires  six.  In  the  semi-floating  axle  the  bearings 
on  each  half  of  the  axle  shaft  are  separated  by  nearly 
half  the  distance  across  the  axle,  and  this  distance  be- 
tween the  bearings  serves  to  give  the  wheel  a more 
rigid  support  than  would  be  the  case  with  the  beamings 
placed  close  together.  This  is  true  for  the  same  reason 
that  a bar  may  be  more  rigidly  supported  when 
grasped  at  two  points  far  apart  than  when  held  with 
the  hands  close  together. 

The  bearings  used  in  the  Ford  rear  axle  are  of 
flexible  roller  tj'pe.  Each  bearing  is  composed  of  a 
series  of  rollers,  each  roller  about  one-half  inch  in 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


60 


diameter  and  several  inches  long.  Each  roller  con- 
sists of  a single  strip  of  steel  formed  into  a hollow 
spiral.  This  spiral  assists  in  carrying  the  lubricant 
from  end  to  end  of  the  bearings,  and  at  the  same  time 
provides  an  anti-friction  mounting  of  great  load- 
carrying capacity  in  proportion  to  its  weight  and 
with  ability  to  resist  shocks  because  of  the  springlike 
construction. 

The  rollers  composing  one  of  these  bearings  are 
carried  in  a framework  called  a cage,  and,  depending 
on  the  point  at  which  the  bearings  are  used,  they  may 
or  may  not  be  enclosed  by  a cylindrical  shell,  called  a 
race.  In  any  case  the  spirals  in  adjacent  rollers  run 
in  opposite  directions,  this  construction  assisting  to 
distribute  the  load  and  also  to  carry  the  lubricant 
back  and  forth  from  one  end  of  the  bearing  to  the 
other. 


RUNNING  GEAR 

The  parts  of  the  power  plant,  drive  system  and  con- 
trol system  are  carried  on  a steel  framework  so  that 
they  are  held  in  place  and  can  do  their  work.  The 
frame  is  made  of  such  size  and  shape  that  all  the 
parts  just  fit  in  place  on  the  bars  that  make  up  the 
frame. 

In  order  to  protect  the  machinery  against  jars  and 
bumps  that  might  damage  it  and  also  to  make  the  ear 
ride  easy  for  the  passengers,  the  frame  is  carried  on 
springs  placed  between  it  and  the  axles. 

The  front  axle  of  the  car,  in  addition  to  carrying 
part  of  the  weight,  includes  parts  of  the  steering  gear 
so  that  the  front  wheels  may  be  turned  as  the  driver 
wishes. 

The  rear  axle  is  made  up  of  hollow  tubing  so  that 


70 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


the  driving  shafts  and  differential  may  be  carried 
inside  of  the  hollow  part.  This  protects  the  working 
parts  from  dirt  and  also  makes  the  axle  stronger. 

Automobile  wheels  are  made  with  either  wood  or 
wire  spokes,  and  because  of  the  greater  strength  re- 
quired, they  are  usually  much  lower  than  carriage 
wheels. 


Figure  29. — The  Front  Axle  and  Radius  Rods. 


In  order  to  absorb  the  small  vibrations  and  jars 
and  leave  only  the  larger  bumps  for  the  springs  to 
take  care  of,  rubber  tires  are  placed  around  the  rim 
of  the  wheel.  These  tires  are  hollow  and  filled  with 
compressed  air. 

The  frame,  springs,  axles,  wheels  and  tires  make 
up  the  running  gear  of  the  car. 

Froni  Axle. — The  appearance  of  the  front  and  of 
the  top  of  the  Ford  front  axle  is  shown  in  Figure  29. 
The  center  section  is  a steel  forging  of  I-beam  sec- 
tion, this  shape  providing  great  strength  with  light 
weight.  The  front  axle  of  the  automobile,  unlike  that 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


71 


of  a carriage  or  wagon,  does  not  turn  at  its  center, 
but  consists  of  a central  portion  which  remains  sta- 
tionary with  reference  to  the  frame.  In  jaws  on  the 
end  of  this  center  are  pieces  called  knuckles  and 
spindles.  The  front  wheel  hubs  are  supported  on  the 
spindles  and  the  spindles  themselves  are  hinged  on 
large  vertical  bolts  so  that  they  may  be  turned  toward 


Figure  30. — Front  Wheel  Spindle  and  Bearings. 


the  front  or  rear,  thus  allowing  the  car  to  turn  a 
corner. 

The  spindles  are  provided  with  arms  extending 
toward  the  rear  of  the  car  and  these  arms  are  fast- 
ened together  with  a transverse  rod  called  a tie  rod. 
By  moving  this  tie  rod  from  side  to  side  the  spindles 
and  wheels  are  moved.  The  construction  of  the  spin- 
dle and  front  hub  is  shown  in  Figure  30.  The  hub 
is  carried  on  bearings  of  the  cup  and  cone  ball  type. 
One  of  these  bearings  is  toward  the  inner  end  of  the 
spindle  and  is  the  larger  one  of  the  two,  while  the 
other  one  is  at  the  outer  end  and  serves  to  maintain 


72 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


the  wheel  in  an  upright  position,  hut  does  not  carry 
much  of  the  load.  A cup  and  cone  bearing  consists 
first  of  a conical  seat  fastened  to  the  spindle.  The 
cone  of  the  inner  bearing  points  out  and  the  cone  of 
the  outer  bearing  points  in.  A cup-shaped  portion  of 
these  bearings  is  carried  in  the  wheel  hub  and  serves 
to  retain  the  steel  balls  in  position  as  they  travel 
around  the  cones. 

A cup  and  cone  ball  bearing  is  well  suited  to  use 
in  the  front  wheels  of  a motor  car  because  of  its 
ability  to  withstand  thrust  loads  as  well  as  those  of 
a radial  nature.  A line  drawn  through  any  one  of 
the  balls  from  its  point  of  contact  with  the  cup  to 
the  point  of  contact  with  the  cone  would  be  at  an 
angle  of  almost  45  degrees.  Vertical  loads  caused 
by  the  weight  of  the  car,  and  which  are  called  radial 
loads,  tend  to  press  the  cups  straight  down  toward  the 
cone,  while  thrust  loads  such  as  are  caused  by  the 
car’s  turning  a corner  or  running  at  an  incline  on 
the  road,  tend  to  press  the  cup  sidewise  against  the 
cone  and  along  the  length  of  the  spindle.  Because 
the  points  of  contact  between  the  balls  and  the  cup 
and  the  cone  are  at  an  angle  to  each  other  it  is  im- 
possible to  press  the  cup  either  sideways  or  up  and 
down  and  both  of  these  t\-pes  of  loads  are  therefore 
resisted  with  very  little  friction. 

The  objection  is  sometimes  raised  against  a cup 
and  cone  bearing  that  it  is  of  an  adjustable  V^pe  and 
is  therefore  subject  to  misuse  at  the  hands  of  those 
who  do  not  understand  its  construction.  It  is  very 
essential  that  a bearing  of  this  tj-pe,  or  of  any  other 
adjustable  type,  be  neither  too  tight  nor  too  loose. 
Looseness  permits  play  wliich  results  in  more  or  less 
severe  shocks  and  these  shocks  tend  to  cause  fractures 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


73 


on  the  wearing  surfaces  of  the  balls  and  also  on  the 
cups  and  cones.  Excessive  tightening  of  the  bearing 
causes  unnecessary  loads  to  be  imposed  on  the  balls 
with  the  result  that  they  quickly  cut  into  the  surfaces 
of  the  parts  between  which  they  roll  and  the  life  of 
the  bearing  is  very  much  shortened. 

In  making  an  adjustment  of  the  cup  and  cone  bear- 
ing the  wheels  should  be  jacked  clear  of  the  ground 
and  should  then  be  started  to  revolve.  If  the  wheel 
comes  to  rest  quickly  it  indicates  that  the  bearing  is 
too  tight  and  it  should  be  loosened.  If  the  wheel 
spins  freely  the  bearing  should  be  gradually  tightened 
by  screwing  the  cone  farther  onto  the  spindle  until 
there  is  a slight  amount  of  binding,  which  causes  the 
wheel  to  come  to  a stop  quicker  than  it  did  with  the 
bearing  loose.  After  the  bearing  has  been  tightened 
in  this  way  it  should  be  loosened  a fraction  of  a turn, 
which  will  provide  a good  running  adjustment. 

The  center  line  of  the  spindle  is  inclined  so  that 
the  top  of  either  front  wheel  is  farther  away  from 
the  center  of  the  ear  than  is  the  bottom  of  the  wheel. 
In  other  words,  the  wheel  tips  out  at  the  top  or  is 
cambered.  By  such  a construction  the  point  of  the 
front  wheel  which  is  in  contact  with  the  road  is  brought 
very  nearly  into  line  with  the  axis  of  the  long  ver- 
tical bolt  on  which  the  spindle  and  knuckle  turn. 
Steering  is  thus  made  much  easier  because  it  requires 
less  effort  to  turn  the  wheel  around  a point  resting 
on  the  ground  than  to  move  the  whole  wheel  in  a part 
of  a small  circle,  which  would  be  the  ease  if  the  wheels 
were  straight  up  and  down. 

The  steering  wheels  of  the  ear  are  held  in  such  a 
position  by  the  tie  rod  that  their  front  edges  are 
closer  together  than  are  the  rear  edges.  This  con- 


74 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


struetion  is  called  gathering.  This  gather  is  pro- 
vided to  compensate  for  any  slight  looseness  or  de- 
flection that  may  take  place  in  the  joints  of  the  knuckle 
and  of  the  tie  rod.  The  front  wheels  are  pushed 
along  over  the  road  by  the  car,  and  inasmuch  as  there 
is  a certain  resistance  to  motion  caused  by  the  road 
surface,  the  tendency  of  the  wheel  is  to  slow  up  at 
all  times  while  running.  This  tendency  causes  the 


Figure  31. — Front  and  Rear  Springs. 


wheels  to  press  back  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  spindles. 
This  pressing  back  takes  the  slack  out  of  all  the  front 
axle  and  steering  parts  and  at  the  same  time  tends  to 
cause  the  front  edges  of  the  wheels  to  run  away  from 
each  other  and  to  cause  the  rear  edges  to  come  to- 
gether. This  tendency  takes  up  almost  all  of  the 
above  mentioned  gather. 

The  front  axle  is  maintained  in  correct  relation  to 
the  frame  by  a pair  of  radius  rods  which,  together 
with  the  axle  center,  form  a triangle.  The  rear  point 
of  this  triangle  is  fastened  to  the  lower  part  of  the 


THE  FORD  TRANSMISSION  SYSTEM 


75 


engine  by  means  of  a ball  and  socket  joint.  This  con- 
nection keeps  the  front  axle  in  line  with  the  rear  axle 
and  at  the  same  time  allows  the  outer  end  to  move  up 
and  down  as  the  wheels  travel  over  inequalities  in 
the  road. 

Springs. — The  Ford  car  uses  but  two  springs  and 
these  are  of  the  semi-elliptic  type  as  shown  in  Figure 
31.  Contrary  to  ordinary  practice,  the  Ford  springs 
run  crosswise  of  the  car  rather  than  lengthwise.  The 
front  end  of  the  frame  is  carried  at  the  center  of 
the  front  spring  and  the  rear  end  of  the  frame  is  car- 
ried at  the  center  of  the  rear  spring.  The  outer  ends 
of  the  springs  rest  on  the  axles  close  to  the  wheels. 

Each  spring  is  composed  of  a number  of  rather 
thin  leaves  and  these  leaves  vary  in  length  from  bot- 
tom to  top  of  the  set.  The  lower  leaf  is  long  enough 
to  extend  clear  across  from  support  to  support,  while 
those  above  it  grow  shorter  and  shorter  until  the  one 
next  to  the  frame  is  less  than  half  the  length  of  the 
lower  one. 

Frame. — The  frame  of  the  Ford  ear  with  the  power 
plant  and  rear  axle  mounting  is  shown  in  Figure  32. 
The  frame  itself  is  a rectangular  assembly  of  pressed 
steel  channels.  The  frame  supports  the  power  plant 
and  body  and  is  itself  supported  on  the  springs  and 
the  front  and  rear  axles. 

The  Ford  principle  of  three-point  suspension  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  view  in  Figure  32.  The  power 
plant  is  supported  in  front  and  at  its  two  sides  on 
the  frame.  The  rear  axle  is  supported  toward  the 
front  by  the  rear  end  of  the  power  plant  and  at  its 
outer  ends  by  the  triangular  radius  rods.  The  front 
axle  likewise  forms  a triangular  system  as  already 
explained. 


76 


FOED  MOTOR  CAR 


Figure  32. — Power  Plant,  Transmission  System  and  Frame, 
Showing  Three-Point  Suspension. 


CHAPTER  III 


DEIVING  AND  CONTEOL 
THE  STEERING  GEAR 

The  steering  gear  includes  the  hand  wheel  which  is 
turned  by  the  driver,  and  all  of  the  parts  that  carry 
the  turning  effort  from  this  wheel  to  the  front  road 
wheels.  The  parts  of  the  steering  gear  which  are 
fastened  directly  to  the  front  axle  have  already  been 
mentioned  in  Chapter  II.  The  principle  of  this  type 
of  steering  gear  is  illustrated  in  Figures  33  and  34. 

The  arms  which  move  the  wheel  spindles  extend 
from  the  axle  and  carry  the  tie  rod.  This  tie  rod  is 
moved  crosswise  by  a steering  link  whose  one  end 
attaches  to  the  right  hand  end  of  the  tie  rod  and  whose 
other  end  is  attached  to  a crank  or  arm  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  steering  column.  Movement  of  this  crank 
pulls  the  steering  link  one  way  or  the  other  and 
through  the  tie  rod  and  spindle  the  front  wheels  are 
turned. 

In  order  to  make  the  steering  gear  operate  properly 
it  is  designed  so  that  a line  drawn  through  either  one 
of  the  vertical  spindle  bolts  and  then  through  the  end 
of  the  tie  rod  which  is  back  of  this  bolt  would  lead  to 
the  center  of  the  rear  axle. 

A steering  gear  laid  out  in  this  way  is  illustrated  in 
Figure  35.  The  tie  rod  is  of  such  length  that  when 
one  of  the  front  wheels  is  turned  the  other  turns  also, 
but  to  either  a greater  or  less  degree  than  the  first  one. 

77 


78 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


Kegardless  of  the  amount  that  either  wheel  is  turned, 
it  will  be  found  that  lines  through  their  spindles 
point  to  one  and  the  same  point  and  that  this  point  lies 
in  a line  drawn  through  the  rear  axle.  The  degree 
of  turning,  shown  in  Figure  35,  causes  the  spindle  of 


the  left  hand  front  wheel  to  point  toward  A,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  spindle  of  the  right  front  wheel 
also  points  toward  A.  This  point  A is  found  to  lie  in 
a line  drawn  through  the  center  of  the  rear  axle. 
With  all  of  the  wheels  in  the  position  shown  they  will 
travel  around  A as  a center  and  the  ear  will  follow 
the  curved  path  shown. 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


79 


The  construction  of  that  part  of  the  steering  gear 
which  is  directly  acted  upon  by  the  hand  wheel  is 
shown  in  Figure  34.  It  consists  of  a shell  on  the  inside 
surface  of  which  are  gear  teeth.  This  shell  is  fastened 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  steering  column  and,  with  the 
housing  of  the  column,  remains  stationary.  In  mesh 
with  the  teeth  in  this  shell  are  three  small  pinions 
which  are  mounted  on  a triangular  plate  fastened  to 
the  upper  end  of  a shaft  extending  down  through  the 


Figure  34. — Principle  of  the  Ford  Steering  Gear. 


center  of  the  steering  column.  The  steering  wheel 
carries  another  small  pinion  which  is  shown  at  the 
center  of  the  illustration  and  which  meshes  with  all 
three  of  the  pinions  which  are  attached  to  the  steering 
column  shaft. 

When  the  steering  wheel  is  turned  by  hand  it  re- 
volves the  central  pinion  and  in  doing  so  causes  the 
three  steering  shaft  pinions  to  roll  around  the  inside 
of  the  toothed  shell.  In  traveling  around  the  inside 
of  this  shell  the  three  pinions  carry  with  them  the 
triangular  piece  on  which  they  are  mounted  and  the 
steering  shaft  is  thus  caused  to  go  through  part  of  a 
revolution. 

It  will  he  realized  that  it  would  require  several 


80 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


revolutions  of  the  steering  wheel  and  its  gear  to  cause 
the  three  pinions  to  travel  all  the  way  around  inside 


\ 

\ 

Figure  35. — Operation  of  Steering  Gear  in  Turning. 


of  the  shell.  It  therefore  requires  a considerable  part 
of  a revolution  or  even  more  than  one  complete  revo- 
lution of  the  steering  wheel  to  effect  any  great  change 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


81 


in  position  of  the  steering  shaft.  This  reduction  of 
motion  increases  the  power  applied  by  the  driver  to 
the  road  wheels  and  gives  good  control  of  the  direction 
in  which  the  ear  shall  travel. 

The  rod  which  runs  from  the  lower  end  of  the 
steering  column  shaft  to  the  right  hand  end  of  the  tie 
rod  is  fitted  at  each  of  its  ends  with  a ball  and  socket 
joint.  Joints  of  this  same  type  are  found  at  several 
points  on  the  Ford  cars  and  are  used  wherever  it  is 
desired  to  make  a secure  connection  that  will  allow 
relative  motion  in  almost  any  direction  between  the 
parts  attached. 

The  steering  wheel  of  the  Ford  car  is  at  the  left 
hand  side  of  the  driver’s  seat  and  it  will  be  found 
that  this  location,  rather  than  that  on  the  right,  gives 
certain  advantages  in  handling  the  car  on  the  road. 
For  instance,  in  passing  a car  coming  from  an  oppo- 
site direction  it  is  possible  to  accurately  judge  of  the 
clearance  between  the  two  cars  as  they  pass.  It  is 
also  possible  for  the  passenger  riding  with  the  driver 
to  alight  directly  on  the  curb  with  the  car  stopped  on 
the  right  hand  side  of  the  street,  whereas,  with  a right 
hand  location  of  the  steering  wheel  it  would  be  neces- 
sary for  the  passenger  to  get  out  on  the  left  and  walk 
around  the  car. 


BRAKING  SYSTEM 

Two  separate  and  distinct  brakes  are  provided  on 
the  Ford  car.  One  of  these  brakes  acts  on  a drum 
carried  with  the  transmission  gearing  and  is  called  the 
service  brake.  This  brake  is  operated  by  the  right 
hand  foot  pedal. 

The  other  brake  acts  directly  on  the  rear  wheel 
hubs  through  drums  fastened  to  the  hubs  and  into 


82 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


which  brake  shoes  are  expanded  when  a pull  is  ex- 
erted on  rods  which  attach  to  the  hand  lever  in  the 
driver’s  compartment.  This  wheel  brake  is  called  the 
emergency  brake. 

The  parts  of  the  emergency  brake  are  shown  in 
Figure  36  and  consist  simply  of  the  steel  drum  which 
is  solidly  fastened  to  the  wheel  and  two  shoes  which 


expand  inside  of  this  drum.  The  service  brake  is 
carried  in  the  transmission  and  consists  of  a band 
which  encircles  a drum  and  of  a foot  pedal  which  acts 
to  contract  the  band  through  linkage  drawn  tight 
when  the  pedal  is  pressed. 

The  service  brake  retards  the  motion  of  the  car 
through  its  effect  first  on  the  transmission  shaft,  then 
on  the  universal  joint  and  the  ch’ive  shaft,  then 
through  the  rear  axle  driving  gears  and  differential 
to  the  axle  shaft  and  to  the  wheels. 


/ 


Figure  36. — The  Rear  Wheel  Brake. 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


83 


The  differential  serves  to  divide  the  braking  effort 
equally  between  the  right  hand  and  left  hand  wheels 
and  in  this  way  serves  the  purpose  of  what  would  be 
called  a brake  equalizer  were  such  a device  built  as 
a separate  part  of  the  braking  system.  The  division 
between  the  rear  wheels  of  the  braking  effect  exerted 
by  pulling  on  the  hand  lever  is  not  determined  by  any 
equalizing  device,  but  depends  for  equal  action  on 
maintenance  of  correct  length  of  the  pull  rods.  The 
effective  length  of  these  pull  rods  may  be  altered  by 
screwing  the  forked  rod  ends  one  way  or  the  other  on 
the  ends  of  the  pull  rods. 

It  is  possible  to  apply  a powerful  braking  action  at 
the  rear  wheels  by  exerting  a very  light  pressure  on 
the  reverse  brake  pedal.  It  should,  however,  be  borne 
in  mind  that  braking  done  by  means  of  the  reverse 
imposes  a very  severe  strain  on  the  transmission 
gears. 

It  is  always  possible  with  any  car  to  allow  the  engine 
itself  to  act  as  a brake  in  descending  a hill  of  some 
length.  This  is  done  by  turning  the  ignition  switch 
to  the  off  position,  closing  the  throttle  and  then  en- 
gaging either  high  or  low  gear.  The  engagement  of 
high  gear  will  cause  the  car  to  drive  the  engine  at  a 
moderate  rate  of  speed  and  this  will  require  sufficient 
power  to  reduce  the  speed  at  which  the  car  is  travel- 
ing. Engagement  of  low  speed  causes  the  car  to  drive 
the  engine  very  fast  and  will  therefore  reduce  the 
speed  of  the  car  very  quickly.  Under  the  steering 
wheel  are  two  small  brass  levers  as  shown  in  Figure  37. 
The  right  hand  or  throttle  lever  controls  the  amount 
of  gasoline  and  air  mixture  which  goes  into  the  cylin- 
ders. When  the  engine  is  in  operation  the  farther  this 
lever  is  moved  downward  toward  the  driver  the  faster 


84 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


the  engine  will  run  and  the  greater  will  be  the  power 
furnished. 

The  left  hand  lever  controls  the  spark  which  ignites 
the  gas  in  the  cylinder  of  the  engine.  This  lever  ad- 
vances the  spark  and  it  should  be  moved  toward  the 
driver  notch  by  notch,  until  the  engine  reaches  its 
maximum  speed  with  a given  throttle  opening.  If  the 


Figure  37. — Spark  and  Throttle  Levers  TJnder  Steering  Wheel. 

lever  is  advanced  or  moved  toward  the  driver  beyond 
this  point  a dull  knock  will  be  heard  in  the  engine. 

The  spark  lever  should  usually  be  put  in  about  the 
third  or  fourth  notch  of  the  notched  half-circle  on 
which  the  levers  operate.  The  throttle  should  usually 
he  opened  about  five  or  six  notches.  A little  experi- 
ence will  soon  indicate  where  these  levers  should  he 
placed  for  proper  starting.  Care  should  he  taken 
while  cranking  not  to  move  the  spark  lever  too  far 
down  as  the  engine  may  kick  hack  in  starting. 

Good  drivers  keep  the  spark  lever  advanced  just  as 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


85 


far  as  the  engine  will  permit  without  knocking.  If 
the  spark  is  advanced  too  far  ignition  occurs  before 
the  piston  in  the  engine  has  completed  its  compression 
stroke  and  a knock  results.  The  best  results  are  ob- 
tained when  complete  ignition  occurs  just  at  the  time 
the  piston  reaches  its  highest  point  in  the  cylinder, 
the  gas  then  being  at  its  highest  compression.  The 
spark  should  be  retarded  only  when  the  engine  slows 
down  on  a bad  road  or  steep  grade,  but  care  should 
be  exercised  not  to  retard  the  spark  too  far,  for  when 
this  is  done,  instead  of  getting  a powerful  explosion, 
a slow  burning  of  gas  with  excessive  heat  will  be  the 
result.  The  spark  should  be  operated  as  the  occasion 
demands.  The  greatest  economy  in  gasoline  consump- 
tion is  obtained  by  driving  with  the  spark  advanced 
sufficiently  to  obtain  the  maximum  engine  speed  for 
the  throttle  opening  being  used. 

The  different  speeds  required  to  meet  road  condi- 
tions are  obtained  by  opening  or  closing  the  throttle. 
Practically  all  the  running  speeds  needed  for  ordinary 
travel  are  obtained  on  high  gear  and  it  is  seldom  neces- 
sary to  use  low  gear  except  to  give  the  ear  momentum 
in  starting.  The  speed  of  the  ear  may  be  temporarily 
slackened  while  driving  through  crowded  traffic  or 
turning  corners  by  slipping  the  clutch,  that  is,  press- 
ing the  clutch  pedal  forward  toward  neutral. 

DRIVING 

All  of  the  parts  by  means  of  which  the  driver  is 
given  control  of  the  Ford  ear  are  shown  in  Figure  38 
as  they  would  appear  to  a person  looking  over  the 
back  of  the  front  seat.  These  are  the  parts  with 
which  the  driver  is  concerned  after  the  car  is  in 


86 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


;{8. — Control  Mcmiu'rs  In  the  Driver’s  Ciili. 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


87 


motion,  but  before  this  time  comes  it  is  necessary  to 
make  certain  preparations  to  crank  the  engine  and  to 
start  the  car  from  a standstill. 

Before  trying  to  start  the  car,  fill  the  radiator  with 
clean,  fresh  water.  If  perfectly  clean  water  cannot 
be  obtained  it  is  advisable  to  strain  it  through  muslin 
or  some  similar  material  to  prevent  foreign  matter 
from  getting  in  and  obstructing  the  tubes  of  the  radia- 
tor. The  cooling  system  will  hold  a little  more  than 
three  gallons  of  water.  It  is  important  that  the  car 
should  not  be  run  under  its  own  power  unless  the 
water  circulating  system  has  been  filled.  Pour  in  the 
water  until  both  radiator  and  cylinder  water  jackets 
are  full.  The  water  will  run  out  of  the  overflow  pipe 
when  the  entire  water  system  has  been  properly  filled. 
The  water  supply  should  be  replenished  as  often  as 
may  be  found  necessary.  Soft  rain  water,  when  it  is 
to  be  had  in  a clean  state,  is  superior  to  hard  water, 
which  may  contain  alkalies  and  other  salts  which  tend 
to  deposit  sediment  and  clog  the  radiator. 

The  gasoline  tank  should  be  filled  nearly  full  and 
the  supply  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  low.  The 
gasoline  may  be  strained  through  chamois  skin  to  pre- 
vent water  and  other  foreign  substances  from  getting 
into  the  tank.  Dirt  or  water  in  the  gasoline  is  sure 
to  cause  trouble.  When  filling  the  tank  there  must  be 
no  naked  flames  within  several  feet,  as  the  gasoline 
vapor  is  extremely  inflammable  and  travels  rapidly. 
Always  be  careful  about  lighting  matches  near  where 
gasoline  has  been  spilled  as  the  air  within  a radius 
of  several  feet  is  permeated  with  the  highly  explosive 
vapor.  The  small  vent  hole  in  the  gasoline  tank  cap 
should  not  be  allowed  to  get  plugged  up,  as  this  would 
prevent  proper  flow  of  gasoline  to  the  carburetor.  The 


88 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


gasoline  tank  may  be  drained  by  opening  tbe  pet-coek 
in  the  sediment  bulb  at  the  bottom. 

Upon  receipt  of  the  car  see  that  a supply  of  medium 
light,  high-grade  engine  oil  is  poured  into  the  crank- 
case through  the  breather  pipe  which  is  covered  by  a 
metal  cap  at  the  front  of  the  engine.  After  the  en- 
gine has  become  thoroughly  limbered  up  the  best 
results  will  be  obtained  by  carrying  the  oil  at  a level 
midway  between  the  two  cocks,  but  under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  it  be  allowed  to  get  below  the 
lower  cock.  It  will  be  well  to  see  that  all  grease 
cups  are  filled  and  that  oil  is  supplied  to  necessary 
parts. 

Before  cranking  the  engine  see  that  the  hand  lever, 
which  comes  up  through  the  floor  of  the  car  at  the 
left  of  the  driver,  is  pulled  back  as  far  as  it  will  go. 
In  this  position  the  lever  holds  the  high  speed  clutch 
out  of  engagement  and  applies  the  hub  brake,  thus 
preventing  the  car  from  moving  forward  when  the 
engine  is  started.  After  inserting  the  switch  key  in 
the  switch  on  the  coil  box  throw  the  switch  lever  as 
far  to  the  left  as  it  will  go,  to  the  point  marked  ]\IAG. 
This  switch  connects  the  magneto  with  the  coils  and 
spark  plugs.  The  engine  cannot  be  started  until  the 
switch  is  closed.  Throwing  this  switch  back  to  a ver- 
tical position  stops  the  engine. 

Cranking  the  Engine. — The  engine  is  cranked  by 
turning  the  starting  crank  which  is  at  the  front  of  the 
car.  Take  hold  of  the  handle  and  push  firmly  toward 
the  ear  till  the  crank  ratchet  is  felt  to  engage,  then 
lift  upward  with  a quick  swing.  "With  a little  experi- 
ence this  operation  will  become  an  easy  matter.  Do 
not,  as  a usual  thing,  crank  downward,  for  an  early 
explosion  may  drive  the  handle  vigorously  backward. 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


89 


This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  it  is  not  advisable, 
when  the  car  is  hard  to  stop,  to  occasionally  spin  the 
engine  by  the  use  of  the  starting  handle,  but  the  spark 
lever  must  surely  be  retarded  when  spinning,  or  crank- 
ing the  engine  against  compression,  otherwise  a sud- 
den backfire  may  injure  the  arm  of  the  operator.  When 
the  engine  is  cool  it  is  advisable  to  prime  the  car- 
buretor by  pulling  on  the  small  wire  at  the  lower  left 
corner  of  the  radiator  while  giving  two  or  three  quarter 
turns  with  the  starting  handle. 

To  facilitate  starting  many  drivers  make  a practice 
of  stopping  their  engine  by  walking  around  in  front 
of  the  car  and  pulling  out  on  the  priming  rod,  which 
has  the  effect  of  shutting  off  the  air  suction  and  filling 
the  cylinders  full  of  a very  rich  gasoline  vapor.  This 
should  not  be  done  unless  the  car  is  going  to  stand 
over  night  or  long  enough  to  cool  off.  If  the  engine 
is  stopped  in  this  way  and  then  cranked  while  still 
hot,  starting  is  apt  to  be  difficult  on  account  of  the 
surplus  gasoline  in  the  cylinders. 

The  carburetor  does  not  ordinarily  require  priming 
when  the  engine  is  warm,  and  cranking  with  the  rod 
pulled  out  is  apt  to  flood  the  engine  with  an  over-rich 
mixture  of  gas  which  does  not  readily  explode.  This 
naturally  causes  difficulty  in  starting.  If  the  cylinders 
should  be  accidentally  flooded,  turn  the  carburetor 
adjusting  needle  down  or  to  the  right  until  it  seats; 
then  crank  the  engine  for  a few  revolutions  in  order 
to  exhaust  the  rich  gas.  As  soon  as  the  engine  starts, 
turn  the  needle  back  and  readjust  the  carburetor. 

Starting  the  Car. — In  order  to  allow  the  engine  to 
-be  started  with  the  car  standing  still,  a position  of  the 
change  speed  gearing  is  provided  which  allows  the 
engine  to  run  without  moving  the  road  wheels.  This 


90 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


is  called  the  neutral  position.  In  order  to  give  suffi- 
cient power  for  starting  the  car,  another  position  is 
provided  in  which  the  engine  will  turn  very  fast  and 
deliver  a large  amount  of  power  while  the  car  moves 
slowly. 

To  engage  the  gearing  in  the  position  for  starting, 
usually  called  low  speed,  the  driver  presses  gently  on 
the  left  hand  pedal  until  the  power  of  the  engine  ap- 
plied through  the  gears  causes  the  driving  wheels  to 
revolve  slowly.  The  band  is  allowed  to  slip  slightly 
so  that  the  engine  can  keep  up  its  speed  and  at  the 
same  time  begin  to  move  the  car. 

As  the  pressure  on  the  pedal  increases  there  will  be 
less  and  less  slipping  of  the  band  and  the  car  will  run 
faster  until  its  speed  reaches  a point  as  great  as  the 
engine  will  drive  it  with  the  change  speed  gearing 
in  the  low  speed  position. 

After  starting  the  car  from  a standstill  in  this  way 
the  pedal  is  released  by  the  driver  and  the  clutch  is  al- 
lowed to  engage  gradually  so  the  car  will  go  faster 
than  before,  but  of  course  without  as  great  power. 

The  operation  of  the  foot  pedals  has  already  been 
explained.  The  first  one  toward  the  left  operates  the 
clutch  and  by  it  the  car  is  started  and  its  operation 
largely  controlled.  "When  pressed  forward  the  clutch 
pedal  engages  the  low  speed  gear.  When  half-way 
forward  the  gears  are  in  neutral — that  is,  discon- 
nected from  the  driving  mechanism  of  the  rear  wheels. 
With  the  hand  lever  thrown  forward,  releasing  this 
pedal  so  that  it  comes  back,  it  engages  the  high-speed 
clutch.  The  center  pedal  operates  the  reverse  band 
and  gears.  The  right-hand  pedal  operates  the  trans- 
mission brake. 

In  starting,  slightly  accelerate  the  engine  by  open- 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


91 


ing  the  throttle,  place  the  foot  on  the  clutch  pedal, 
and  thereby  hold  the  gears  in  a neutral  position  while 
throwing  the  hand  lever  forward.  Then  to  start  the 
ear  in  motion,  press  the  pedal  forward  into  slow  speed 
and  when  under  sufficient  headway  allow  the  pedal 
to  drop  back  slowly  into  high  speed,  at  the  same  time 
partially  closing  the  throttle,  which  will  allow  the 
engine  to  pick  up  its  load  easily.  With  a little  prac- 
tice the  change  of  speeds  will  be  easily  accomplished, 
and  without  any  appreciable  effect  on  the  smooth 
running  of  the  machine. 

The  chief  purpose  of  the  hand  lever  is  to  hold  the 
clutch  in  neutral  position.  If  it  were  not  for  this 
lever  the  driver  would  have  to  stop  the  engine  when- 
ever he  left  the  driver’s  seat.  He  would  also  be  un- 
able to  crank  the  engine  without  the  car  starting 
forward  with  the  first  power  stroke.  When  pulled 
back  as  far  as  it  will  go,  the  hand  lever  acts  as  an 
emergency  brake  on  the  rear  wheels  by  expanding  the 
brake  shoes  in  the  wheel  drums.  Therefore  the  hand 
lever  should  be  back  as  far  as  it  will  go  when  crank- 
ing the  engine  or  when  the  car  is  at  rest.  It  should 
be  in  a vertical  position  and  not  far  enough  back  to 
act  as  a brake  when  the  car  is  to  be  reversed.  When 
the  car  is  operating  in  high  or  low  speed  the  hand 
lever  should  be  all  the  way  forward. 

Stopping. — To  stop  the  car,  partially  close  the  throt- 
tle, release  high  speed  by  pressing  the  clutch  pedal 
forward  into  neutral  and  apply  the  foot  brake  slowly 
but  firmly  until  the  car  comes  to  a dead  stop.  Do  not 
remove  the  foot  from  the  clutch  pedal  without  first 
pulling  the  hand  lever  back  to  neutral  position  or 
the  engine  will  stall.  To  stop  the  engine,  open  the 
throttle  a trifle  and  then  throw  off  the  switch.  The 


92 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


engine  will  then  stop  with  the  cylinders  full  of  ex- 
plosive gas  which  will  naturally  facilitate  starting. 

The  driver  should  be  so  familiar  with  the  operation 
of  the  car  that  to  disengage  the  clutch  and  apply  the 
brake  becomes  practically  automatic,  the  natural  thing 
to  do  in  ease  of  emergency. 

In  driving  down  long,  steep  hills  the  speed  of  the 
car  may  be  checked  by  allowing  the  engine  to  run 
against  compression  with  the  ignition  off  rather  than 
by  using  the  transmission  brake.  Throw  off  the  switch 
and  close  the  throttle.  If  this  does  not  slow  the  car 
sufficiently,  press  on  the  low-speed  pedal.  Upon 
reaching  the  bottom  of  the  incline,  throw  on  the  switch 
and  open  the  throttle  when  the  engine  will  commence 
firing.  If  the  throttle  is  left  open  while  descending 
the  hill  fresh  gas  is  apt  to  work  back  through  the 
exhaust  pipe  and  cause  an  explosion  in  the  muffler 
when  the  switch  is  thrown  on.  Using  the  engine  as 
a brake  should  not  be  undertaken  until  the  driver 
becomes  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  car. 

It  will  often  be  found,  when  stopping  in  a street, 
that  it  is  necessary  to  drive  into  a space,  usually 
between  two  other  cars,  which  is  not  much  longer 
than  the  car  which  you  are  driving.  The  path  to  be 
taken  in  getting  into  such  a space  is  shown  in  Figure 
39.  The  path  of  the  front  wheels  is  shown  and  this 
path  should  be  made  such  that  the  right-hand  side  of 
the  ear  is  brought  as  far  toward  the  curb  as  possible 
in  the  space  between  the  two  cars  and  is  then  made 
to  pass  the  rear  corner  of  the  standing  car,  marked 
A,  with  just  as  little  clearance  as  is  safe.  It  will 
then  be  found  that  upon  backing,  the  rear  end  of  your 
car  will  approach  the  curb  and  finally  by  turning  the 
steering  wheel  sharply  as  soon  as  your  front  fender 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


93 


clears  the  car  marked  A,  your  car  will  be  lined  up 
nearly  parallel  with  the  curb. 

The  brakes  should  never  be  applied  with  such  great 
force  as  to  cause  the  rear  wheels  to  come  to  a complete 
stop  and  slide  along  on  the  ground.  With  the  wheels 
locked  the  car  will  not  come  to  a stop  nearly  so  quick 
as  while  they  turn  and  keep  their  hold  on  the  road 
surface.  Should  the  wheels  inadvertently  be  locked, 


Figure  39. — Path  to  Be  Taken  in  Driving  Between  Cars  at  Curb. 


the  brakes  should  be  immediately  released  and  then 
re-applied  more  gently  so  that  the  tires  retain  their 
grip  on  the  road,  yet  exert  all  the  retarding  effort 
that  is  allowed  by  the  weight  of  the  car. 

Skidding. — Skidding  is  best  prevented  by  keeping 
off  slippery  pavements  whenever  possible.  Drive 
slowly  when  on  them.  In  wet  and  snowy  weather 
use  chains  on  the  rear  wheels,  and  if  the  mud  or 
snow  is  very  bad,  on  all  four  wheels.  'Apply  the 
chains  loosely  so  they  will  move  about  and  distribute 
the  wear  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  casing.  Non- 
skid  tires  may  help  some.  When  the  ear  starts  to 
skid,  do  not  apply  the  brake,  but  close  the  throttle 
and  turn  the  steering  wheel  in  the  direction  in  which 


94 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


the  rear  wheels  are  sliding.  This  will  tend  to  neu- 
tralize the  lateral  movement  of  the  car. 

If,  in  the  absence  of  chains,  the  car  becomes  mired, 
or  the  road  is  so  slippery  that  the  wheels  cannot  secure 
sufficient  hold  to  move  the  car,  relief  may  be  obtained 
by  winding  a rope  around  the  rear  tires  and  between 
the  spokes. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  on  or  near 
car  tracks  because  the  tendency  of  wet  rails  is  to 
carry  the  automobile  wheels  along  in  the  grooves  no 
matter  which  way  you  turn  the  hand  wheel,  and 
when  the  front  wheels  finally  leave  the  rails  the  car 
will  be  defiected  so  violently  that  it  will  make  a bad 
skid  almost  a certainty. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  different  paving  materials, 
when  wet,  provide  different  experiences  for  the  driver. 
A wood  block  pavement  is  a most  treacherous  sur- 
face, and,  unless  extreme  caution  is  used,  the  wheels 
will  travel  in  almost  any  direction  except  the  one  de- 
sired. Asphalt  pavement  probably  ranks  next  in  slip- 
periness. Cobble  stone  comes  next  and  brick  last. 
In  other  words,  a brick  pavement  is  comparatively 
safe  to  drive  on  even  when  wet.  A mud  road  is  not 
especially  dangerous  for  a car  ninniug  at  a moderate 
speed,  and  is  only  to  be  avoided  because  of  getting 
into  the  mud  so  deep  that  there  is  not  sufficient  trac- 
tion to  pull  out. 

"\Miile  driving  on  a wet  road  that  is  crowned  or 
raised  at  its  center,  skidding  may  be  avoided  by  run- 
ning with  the  two  wheels  on  one  side  of  the  ear  in  the 
gutter.  This  will  tend  to  carry  the  car  along  in 
the  trough  formed  between  the  edge  of  the  road  or 
the  curb  of  the  street  and  the  depression  made  for 
the  gutter. 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


95 


In  case  a skid  starts  in  spite  of  all  care  that  may 
be  used,  it  is  essential  that  the  brakes  should  not  be 
applied  unless  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  retard  the 
ear  to  avoid  an  accident.  When  the  brakes  are  ap- 
plied with  the  ear  running  on  a wet  pavement,  one 
wheel  is  almost  sure  to  receive  a greater  retarding 
effort  from  the  brakes  than  that  received  by  the  other. 
This  one  wheel  will  come  to  a stop  and  the  car  will 
tend  to  spin  around  on  this  wheel’s  contact  with  the 
road  as  a center.  This  kind  of  skidding  may  be  pre- 
vented in  large  measure  by  leaving  the  high  speed 
clutch  engaged  whenever  the  brakes  are  applied  on  a 
wet  road.  The  engine  effect,  through  the  driving 
parts,  will  keep  both  wheels  turning,  but  the  brakes 
will  bring  the  car  speed  lower  and  lower  until,  just 
before  the  engine  would  stop  because  of  the  braking, 
the  clutch  may  be  released,  and  the  final  part  of  the 
stopping  done  with  the  brakes  as  in  ordinary  prac- 
tice. 

Reversing. — The  car  is  reversed  by  first  coming  to 
a dead  stop.  With  tlie  engine  still  running,  disengage 
the  clutch  by  pulling  back  on  the  hand  lever  and 
press  the  reverse  pedal  forward  with  the  left  foot, 
the  right  foot  being  free  to  use  on  the  brake  pedal  if 
needed.  Do  not  bring  the  hand  lever  back  too  far  or 
the  brakes  will  be  set  on  the  rear  wheels.  Experi- 
enced drivers  ordinarily  reverse  the  car  by  simply 
holding  the  clutch  pedal  in  neutral  with  the  left  foot 
while  operating  the  reverse  with  the  right. 

A considerable  amount  of  practice  is  required  in 
order  to  drive  a car  backward,  and  this  is  especially 
true  of  turning  corners  or  of  backing  down  a hill. 
It  will  be  found  that  once  the  ear  starts  to  turn  it  will 
leave  a straight  line  very  quickly  and  wiU  show  a 


96 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


decided  tendency  to  get  beyond  tbe  control  of  the 
driver.  It  is  almost  impossible  for  an  inexperienced 
driver  to  look  back  of  him  and  at  the  same  time  keep 
the  car  running  in  a straight  line.  It  might  be  noted 
that  this  difficulty  is  encountered  whether  the  ear  is 
traveling  forward  or  backward,  and  oftentimes  leads 
to  very  serious  consequences. 

Speeding  harms  any  car — ^particularly  a new  one. 
The  Ford  has  all  the  power  and  speed  neeessarj^  for 
safe  and  comfortable  travel.  But  excessive  speed  is 
expensive,  it  shortens  the  life  of  both  tires  and  ma- 
chinery and  besides,  it  is  dangerous.  The  best  car 
made  will  not  long  withstand  the  strain  of  unreason- 
able driving.  Eacing  cars  are  short  lived. 

A decided  difference  wiU  be  found  between  driving 
on  the  city  pavements  and  on  country  roads.  While 
driving  in  the  city  it  is  best  to  have  the  steering  gear 
so  adjusted  that  there  is  little  or  no  play  because  it  is 
desirable  to  follow  an  unwavering  path,  and  that 
path  is  determined  solely  by  the  movement  or  lack 
of  movement  of  the  steering  wheel.  On  a country 
road  it  will  be  found  that  the  ruts  or  tracks  serve  in  a 
great  measure  to  guide  the  front  wheels  of  the  car 
and  steering  is  not  nearly  so  difficult.  In  drhung  on 
a country  road  it  will  be  sufficient  if  the  steering 
wheel  is  held  rather  loosely  so  that  the  road  wheels 
are  free  to  follow  the  traveled  tracks. 

While  driving  in  traffic  and  while  approaching  cor- 
ners it  is  very  necessary  to  keep  the  car  under  such 
control  that  accidents  may  be  avoided.  This  may 
best  be  done  by  running  at  such  a speed  that  the  ear 
could  be  brought  to  a stop  in  the  distance  between  it 
and  whatever  vehicle  is  next  ahead.  This  would  of 
course  allow  for  an  almost  instantaneous  stop  if  the 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


97 


ear  or  wagon  ahead  should  stop  because  of  a collision, 
for  example. 

When  approaching  a comer  the  speed  should  be 
such  that  it  would  be  possible  to  come  to  a stop  before 
crossing  the  intersecting  street,  and  to  do  this  in  the 
time  remaining  between  the  instant  at  which  you 
might  catch  sight  of  another  ear  crossing  your  path 
and  the  time  at  which  your  car  would  reach  the  street 
intersection. 

In  turning  a comer,  whether  at  the  intersection  of 
another  street  or  road  or  where  the  road  on  which  you 
are  traveling  turns,  it  should  be  made  a habit  to 
follow  a path  that  always  keeps  your  car  on  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  center  line  of  the  road  or  on  the 
right  of  a point  where  the  center  line  of  two  inter- 
secting thoroughfares  cross  each  other.  This  will  re- 
sult in  turning  a long  comer  when  the  turn  is  made 
to  the  left  because  in  going  around  the  center  point 
you  will  have  to  keep  to  the  right-hand  side  which  is 
the  outside  of  the  curve.  When  turning  to  the  right 
a short  corner  will  be  turned  because  you  will  follow 
the  inside  of  the  curve.  Such  a procedure  is  a matter 
covered  by  police  regulations  in  most  cities,  but  it  is 
wise  to  follow  this  method  at  all  times  so  that  the 
possibility  of  accidents  may  be  avoided. 

In  many  localities  it  will  be  found  that  traffic  on 
•certain  streets  has  the  right  of  way  over  traffic  on 
intersecting  streets.  It  is  generally  found  that  traffic 
on  boulevards  and  street  ear  lines  has  the  right  of 
way  over  streets  that  cross,  and  in  some  cities  it  will 
be  found  that  north  and  south  bound  traffic  has  the 
right  of  way  over  east  and  west,  or  vice  versa.  There 
is  an  old  rule,  seldom  noted,  that  says  right-hand 
traffic  has  the  right  of  way  on  country  roads.  This 


98 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


means  that  another  car  which  will  cross  the  road  on 
which  you  are  traveling  should  be  allowed  to  cross 
in  front  of  your  car  provided  the  other  ear  is  ap- 
proaching from  your  right,  while  if  it  is  approaching 
from  your  left  you  are  supposed  to  cross  first.  This 
rule  is  not  generally  enough  known  to  make  it  safe 
to  depend  on  the  other  driver’s  knowing  and 
obeying  it. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  climb  a rather  steep  hill  it 
is  generally  best  to  increase  the  speed  of  your  car 
until  it  reaches  about  twenty  miles  an  hour,  and  if 
this  is  done  it  will  usually  be  found  possible  to  climb 
any  ordinary  grade  •udth  the  high  speed  clutch  en- 
gaged. This  advice  would  not  apply  unless  the  road 
leading  up  the  grade  is  free  from  sharp  curves  so 
that  it  may  be  seen  for  a considerable  distance  ahead. 
As  the  engine  slows  dovTi  in  making  the  climb,  the 
spark  lever  should  be  retarded  or  pushed  away  from 
the  driver  a notch  at  a time  and  the  throttle  lever 
should  be  left  in  a wide  open  or  a nearly  wide  open 
position.  If  the  car  runs  almost  to  the  top  of  the 
incline  in  high  gear,  but  seems  to  be  slowing  down 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  summit  cannot  be  reached, 
it  will  generally  be  possible  to  finish  the  climb  on 
high  gear  if  the  clutch  pedal  is  pressed  a little  so 
that  the  plates  in  the  clutch  are  allowed  to  slip  a 
trifle  and  thus  allow  the  engine  to  again  increase  its 
speed  and  power  while  keeping  up  the  application  of 
driving  effort  to  the  rear  wheels.  This  slipping  of 
the  clutch  should  not  be  indulged  in  for  more  than  a 
very  short  distance  as  it  will  damage  the  mechanism 
and  it  is  very  easy  to  press  the  pedal  forward  into 
low  speed  for  whatever  distance  remains  on  the  hiU 
being  negotiated. 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


99 


In  climbing  a very  steep  bill  it  may  be  found  that 
the  fuel  supply  in  the  tank  has  reached  such  a low- 
level  that  it  -wdll  no  longer  flow  to  the  carburetor  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  the  inclined  position  of  the  car 
brings  the  carburetor  bowl  higher  than  the  bottom 
of  the  gasoline  tank.  Should  such  a thing  happen, 
the  hill  may  be  surmounted  by  turning  the  car  around 
and  backing  up  because  this  reversed  position  -will 
bring  the  bottom  of  the  tank  much  higher  than  the 
carburetor — in  fact,  it  will  be  higher  in  proportion 
to  the  steepness  of  the  grade. 

In  coasting  down  hiU.  the  car  may  easily  attain  a 
speed  much  in  excess  of  the  one  at  which  the  driver 
thinks  he  is  traveling.  This  speed  wiU  be  realized 
when  the  brakes  are  applied,  because  if  either  the 
right  or  left  hand  brake  is  tighter  than  the  other  one, 
one  of  the  wheels  will  lock  and  a more  or  less  serious 
skid  will  almost  inevitably  result. 

The  driver  of  a car  should  familiarize  himself  with 
the  local  police  and  traffic  regulations  of  the  town 
or  city  in  which  he  operates  a maehuie.  Some  of 
these  regulations  are  in  force  in  all  localities.  Among 
these  are  the  rules : Keep  to  the  right.  In  passing  a 
car  going  in  your  direction,  go  to  the  left.  Always 
be  prepared  to  meet  emergencies.  Do  not  cut  diag- 
onally across  the  street.  Hug  the  curb  in  making 
the  short  turn  at  a comer.  Always  go  around  the 
center  of  the  street  intersection  in  making  the  long 
turn.  Extending  the  arm  to  the  right  or  left  vflll 
indicate  to  the  driver  behind  the  direction  in  which 
you  expect  to  turn. 

It  is  sometimes  a question  in  a driver’s  mind  just 
how  to  pass  over  a section  of  road  that  has  been 
freshly  covered  with  loose  sharp  gravel  which  pre- 


100 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


sents  many  cutting  edges  and  points  to  the  tires.  If 
the  troublesome  part  of  the  road  is  very  long  it  will 
be  best  to  come  down  to  a moderate  speed  and  then 
maintain  this  speed  wdth  as  little  use  of  the  throttle, 
clutch  and  brakes  as  is  possible  until  the  stones  have 
been  passed.  Quick  stops  or  quick  acceleration  will 
increase  the  liability  of  damage  to  the  tires.  If  the 
stretch  of  stony  road  is  comparatively  short  the  tires 
wall  receive  the  least  damage  if  the  ear  speed  is  in- 
creased to  a moderate  extent  so  that,  when  the  stones 
are  reached,  the  clutch  may  be  released  and  the  ear 
allowed  to  coast  over  the  bad  part  of  the  road  on  its 
own  momentum  and  without  the  application  of 
either  brakes  or  power. 

The  dri^'er  may  sometime  find  himself  in  the  pre- 
dicament of  having  a tire  so  damaged  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  make  a roadside  repair,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  without  a spare  tire  of  any  kind.  This  means 
that  the  car  must  either  be  left  where  it  is  or  else 
driven  in  on  the  rim  and  vrithout  any  tire.  If  the 
casing  is  so  badly  damaged  that  it  wiU  be  of  no  fur- 
ther use  anyway,  it  will  be  best  to  remove  the  tube, 
if  this  is  not  considered  too  much  work,  and  to  then 
drive  along  very  slowly  with  the  casing  replaced  on 
the  rim.  The  casing  will  probably  become  so  loosened 
within  a short  time  that  it  will  come  off  the  rim,  but 
it  will  stay  on  much  longer  without  the  tube  than 
with  it.  Should  it  be  found  that  the  casing  is  worth 
an  attempt  to  save  it  so  that  future  repairs  may  be 
made,  it  should  be  removed  from  the  rim,  after  which 
the  ear  may  be  slowly  driven  with  the  rim  itself 
rolling  on  the  roadway.  This  wiU  often  be  the  best 
thing  to  do  because  a wheel  does  not  cost  nearly  as 
much  as  a new  easing.  Kunning  for  any  distance 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


101 


on  the  rim  will  tend  to  loosen  the  wheel  spokes  in  the 
hub  and  felloe  and  also  to  damage  the  rim. 

Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  tow  another  ear, 
or  when  it  is  necessary  for  your  car  to  be  towed  by 
another,  care  should  be  exercised  as  to  the  selection 
of  a point  for  attaching  the  tow  line  to  both  cars. 
The  line  should  be  attached  to  the  towed  car  at  the 
front  axle  and  rather  near  one  of  the  spring  supports 
rather  than  at  the  center.  The  line  should  be  at- 
tached to  the  towing  car  around  the  rear  axle  and  at  a 
point  near  one  of  the  spring  supports.  It  is  gener- 
ally best  to  use  a rope  or  line  that  will  allow  a dis- 
tance of  about  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  between  the  ears, 
as  this  will  allow  the  driver  of  the  towed  car  to  cheek 
the  motion  of  his  car  in  time  to  avoid  collisions  with 
the  one  ahead.  The  danger  of  a long  tow  line  is  that 
persons  crossing  the  street  or  road  on  which  the  ears 
are  traveling  may  accidentally  fall  across  the  tow 
with  imminent  danger  of  being  run  over  by  the  rear 
car. 

Caution  should  be  used  by  the  driver  of  the  towing 
car  when  the  slack  is  first  taken  out  of  the  tow  line, 
because  if  this  is  done  too  suddenly  the  front  axle 
and  the  axle  connections  of  the  towed  car  may  suffer 
damage..  It  should  be  the  aim  of  both  drivers,  after 
their  cars  are  under  way,  to  keep  the  slack  out  of 
the  tow  line  so  that  sharp  jerks  may  be  avoided. 
This  may  be  done  by  the  forward  ear’s  maintaining 
an  even  speed  and  by  a judicious  use  of  the  brakes 
by  the  driver  of  the  car  being  towed.  Extreme  care 
should  be  used  when  two  cars  thus  fastened  together 
are  crossing  intersecting  streets  and  when  they  are 
turning  comers,  and  it  will  be  advisable  to  be  ready 
to  make  free  use  of  the  horn.  A code  of  signals  car- 


102 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


ried  out  with  the  use  of  the  horn  will  be  found  a con- 
venience in  advising  the  other  driver  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  start,  to  stop  or  to  proceed  earefuUy. 

Accidents  of  various  kinds  may  happen  to  anyone 
and  they  may  happen  to  you.  The  most  common 
accident  is  a collision  with  another  automobile  or 
with  a railroad  car.  A word  of  advice  may  be  given 
that  in  case  of  an  impending  collision  and  when  it  is 
impossible  to  avoid  it,  steer  your  car  in  the  same 
direction  that  the  other  vehicle  is  moving.  This  will 
minimize  the  force  of  the  impact  and  will  probably 
prevent  anything  more  serious  than  bent  fenders  or 
a jammed  body. 

COLD  WEATHER  PROCEDURE 

As  gasoline  does  not  vaporize  readily  in  cold 
weather,  it  is  naturally  more  difficult  to  start  the 
engine  under  such  conditions.  The  usual  method  of 
starting  the  engine  when  cold  is  to  turn  the  carbure- 
tor dash  adjustment  one-quarter  turn  to  the  left  in 
order  to  allow  a richer  mixture  of  gasoline  to  be 
drawn  into  the  cylinders;  then  hold  out  the  priming 
rod  which  projects  through  the  radiator  while  you 
turn  the  cranlc  from  six  to  eight  quarter  turns  in 
quick  succession. 

Another  method  of  starting  a cold  engine  is  as  fol- 
lows: Before  throwing  on  the  mangeto  switch,  close 
the  throttle  lever  and  hold  out  the  priming  rod  while 
you  give  the  crank  several  quick  turns.  Then  let  go 
of  the  priming  rod  and  make  sure  that  it  goes  back 
all  the  way.  Now  place  the  spark  lever  in  about  the 
third  notch  and  advance  the  throttle  lever  several 
notches.  Turn  the  switch  to  the  side  marked  i\lag- 
neto  and  give  the  crank  one  or  two  turns,  when  the 


DRIVING  AND  CONTROL 


103 


engine  should  start.  After  starting  the  engine  it  is 
advisable  to  advance  the  spark  eight  or  ten  notches 
on  the  quadrant  and  let  the  engine  run  until  thor- 
oughly heated  up.  If  you  start  out  with  a cold  engine 
you  will  not  have  much  power  and  are  liable  to  stall. 
The  advantage  of  turning  on  the  switch  last,  or  after 
priming,  is  that  when  you  then  give  the  crank  one- 
quarter  turn  there  is  plenty  of  gas  in  the  cylinder  to 
keep  the  engine  running,  thereby  eliminating  the 
trouble  of  having  the  engine  start  and  then  stop. 
After  the  engine  is  warmed  up,  turn  the  carburetor 
adjustment  back  one-quarter  turn. 

Starting  is  made  much  easier  by  the  introduction 
of  liquid  fuel  into  the  combustion,  space  of  the  engine. 
In  the  case  of  a Ford  ear  equipped  as  it  leaves  the 
factory  this  may  only  be  done  by  removing  the  spark 
plugs  and  injecting  a small  amount  of  gasoline,  then 
replacing  the  plugs  before  cranking  the  engine.  This 
method  entails  considerable  effort  and  delay  and  the 
same  result  may  be  accomplished  if  the  engine  is 
equipped  with  a type  of  spark  plug  which  is  fitted 
with  a small  pet-cock  or  priming  cup.  This  priming 
cup  may  be  opened  and  the  fuel  injected  very  easily. 
In  extreme  cold  weather  it  may  be  found  that  the 
grade  of  gasoline  now  being  furnished  does  not  va- 
porize readily  enough  to  start  the  engine,  even  when 
the  liquid  is  placed  in  the  combustion  chamber.  In 
this  ease  it  will  be  found  that  a very  few  drops  of 
ether  will  do  the  work. 

The  circulation  of  water  in  the  Ford  cooling  sys- 
tem does  not  commence  until  the  water  becomes  heated 
and  it  is  apt  to  freeze  at  low  temperatures  before 
circulation  commences.  The  best  way  to  avoid  such 
troubles  is  to  use  an  anti-freezing  solution  in  the 


104 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


radiator  and  cooling  system.  Either  wood  or  dena- 
tured alcohol  will  lower  the  freezing . point  of  the 
liquid.  The  following  table  gives  the  freezing  point 
of  solutions  containing  various  percentages  of  alcohol : 

20%  solution  freezes  at  15  degrees  above  zero. 

30%  solution  freezes  at  8 degrees  below  zero. 

50%  solution  freezes  at  15  degrees  below  zero. 

A solution  composed  of  60%  water,  10%  glycerine 
and  30%  alcohol  is  commonly  used,  its  freezing  point 
being  about  8 degrees  below  zero.  On  account  of 
evaporation,  fresh  alcohol  must  be  added  frequently 
in  order  to  maintain  the  proper  solution. 

Glycerine  and  alcohol  mixed  in  equal  quantities  is 
a handy  liquid  for  preventing  rain  from  accumu- 
lating on  the  windshield  of  a car.  A small  amount 
rubbed  on  the  windshield  will  cause  the  rain  to  run 
off  as  rapidly  as  it  strikes  the  glass. 


CHAPTER  IV 

UPKEEP  AND  CAEE 

The  appearance  and  value  of  the  car  may  be  greatly 
enhanced  by  giving  it  proper  care  at  all  times.  A 
great  part  of  this  care  consists  in  lubrication  and 
cleanliness.  The  easiest  way  to  give  this  care  is  to 
do  it  systematically;  that  is,  to  plan  the  work  that 
must  be  done  and  then  to  follow  this  plan  conscien- 
tiously. The  following  system  has  been  designed  for 
the  Ford  ear,  and,  if  it  is  followed,  the  results  will 
well  repay  the  owner  for  the  time  spent.  The  points 
which  require  lubrication  are  shown  in  Figure  40. 

There  are  certain  things  that  should  be  done  at 
regular  intervals,  and,  for  convenience,  these  things 
have  been  classified  into  those  that  should  be  done 
every  day,  those  that  should  be  done  every  fifty  miles, 
every  two  hundred,  every  four  hundred,  every  twelve 
hundred  and  every  five  thousand  miles  that  the  car 
is  driven. 

Every  day  the  car  is  run,  oil  should  be  put  into  the 
engine  through  the  breather  pipe  at  the  front  and  on 
the  right-hand  side.  Oil  should  be  added  until  it 
reaches  some  point  above  the  lower  pet-cock  on  the 
flywheel  housing,  but  not  above  the  upper  pet-cock. 

EVERY  FIFTY  MILES 

Every  time  the  speedometer  reaches  a total  mileage 
which  is  a multiple  of  fifty,  the  driver  should  raise 
the  hood  and  make  a careful  examination  for  oil, 
water,  or  gasoline  leaks  at  any  of  the  pipes  or  joints. 

105 


A 


A 


Figure  40. — Oiling  Chart  for  the  Ford  Car ; A,  Oil  Every  200 
Miles ; B,  Oil  Every  500  Miles  ; Cj  Grease  Everv  200  Miles  ; 

D,  Grease  Every  500  Miles  ; Ej  Grease  Every  1.000  Miles  ; 

Oil  Motor  Daily ; G,  Grease  Every  o.OOO  Miles. 


«t<  mo  Q a <r< 


UPKEEP  AND  CARE 


107 


The  rear  wheels  should  be  jacked  clear  of  the  ground 
and  should  then  be  grasped  and  pulled  back  and  forth 
to  make  sure  that  they  are  tight  on  the  tapered  end 
of  the  axle  shaft.  Should  any  play  be  noticed,  the 
hub  cap  should  be  removed  and  the  nut  tightened  or 
else  the  key  replaced  with  a new  one. 

The  front  wheels  should  then  be  jacked  up  and 
tested,  not  only  for  smoothness  of  running,  but  for 
side  play  as  well.  If  in  spinning  a front  wheel  a 
sharp  click  occurs  now  and  then,  the  wheel  is  mo- 
mentarily checked,  it  is  probable  that  there  is  a 
chipped  or  split  ball  in  the  bearing  and  it  should  be 
removed  and  replaced  with  a new  one,  otherwise  it 
may  necessitate  the  renewal  of  the  entire  bearing.  A 
wheel  in  perfect  adjustment  should,  after  spinning, 
come  to  rest  with  the  tire  valve  directly  below  the 
hub.  Undue  wear  in  the  hub  bearing,  such  as  in  the 
cones,  balls  and  races,  is  usually  caused  by  lack  of 
lubrication  and  excessive  friction  due  to  the  adjusting 
cone  being  screwed  up  too  tight.  It  is  a good  plan 
to  clean  the  bearings  frequently  and  keep  the  hub 
well  filled  with  grease. 

EVERY  TWO  HUNDRED  MILES 

The  following  points  should  be  oiled  at  this  time : 
the  front  spring  shackle  oil  caps ; the  steering  spindle 
bolts;  the  three  ball  and  socket  joints  on  the  steering 
rods;  the  rear  wheel  hub  brake  cams  and  the  rear 
spring  shackle  oil  caps.  Either  oil  or  vaseline  should 
be  put  into  the  commutator  at  this  time,  the  method 
being  shown  in  Figure  41. 

Keeping  the  commutator  well  oiled  is  a matter  of 
far  greater  importance  than  many  drivers  realize  and 
is  necessary  in  order  to  have  a smooth  operating  en- 


108 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


gine.  Don’t  be  afraid  to  put  a little  oil  into  the  com- 
mutator every  few  days,  or  at  least  every  two  hundred 
miles.  Eemember  that  the  commutator  roller  revolves 
very  rapidly,  and  without  sufficient  lubrication  the 
parts  soon  become  badly  worn.  "When  in  this  condi- 
tion perfect  contact  between  the  roller  and  the  four 


Figure  41. — Oiling  the  Commutator. 


contact  points  is  impossible  and  as  a result  the  engine 
is  apt  to  misfire  when  running  at  a good  rate  of 
speed. 

At  the  time  this  oiling  is  done  the  grease  cup  on 
the  fan  hub  should  be  given  a turn  or  two,  as  should 
all  of  the  grease  cups  on  the  rear  axle.  Also  see  that 
the  ball  and  socket  joints  on  the  steering  gear  are 
tight. 

A mixture  should  be  made  of  three-fourths  kero- 
sene and  one-fourth  alcohol  and  about  one-half  cup 


UPKEEP  AND  CARE 


109 


of  this  mixture  should  be  put  into  each  cylinder  of 
the  engine  while  it  is  still  hot,  and  at  the  end  of  each 
two  hundred  miles  running.  This  mixture  will  loosen 
any  carbon  deposit  if  allowed  to  remain  over  night. 

EVERY  FOUR  HUNDRED  MILES 

It  is  advisable  to  clean  out  the  crankcase  by  drain- 
ing off  the  dirty  oil  wdien  a ear  has  been  driven  four 
or  five  hundred  miles ; thereafter  it  wdll  only  be  nec- 
essary'' to  repeat  this  operation  about  every  thousand 
miles.  Eemove  the  plug  underneath  the  flywheel  eas- 
ing and  drain  off  the  cylinder  oil.  Keplaee  the  plug 
and  pour  a gallon  of  kerosene  in  through  the  breather 
pipe.  Crank  the  engine  by  hand  fifteen  or  twenty 
times,  so  that  the  splash  from  the  kerosene  will  thor- 
oughly cleanse  the  interior  of  the  engine.  Remove 
the  crankcase  plug  and  drain  the  kerosene.  In  order 
to  get  all  the  kerosene  out  of  the  depressions  in  the 
crankcase  the  car  should  be  run  up  an  incline  about 
the  height  of  the  ordinary  street  curbing.  Then  fill 
with  fresh  oil. 

The  following  points  should  be  oiled  at  this  time : 
the  brake  pull  rod  brackets  and  the  pull  rod  supports 
on  the  side  of  the  frame ; the  lacing  between  the  engine 
hood  and  the  hood  rest ; the  starting  crank ; the  door 
hinges  and  the  door  locks. 

A light-bodied  grease  or  vaseline  should  be  placed 
in  the  front  wheel  bearings.  The  grease  cups  at  the 
bottom  of  the  steering  column,  the  cup  on  the  uni- 
versal joint  and  the  cup  at  the  front  end  of  the  drive 
shaft  should  be  given  one  or  two  turns. 

The  ball  and  socket  joint  underneath  the  engine 
and  at  the  rear  end  of  the  front  axle  radius  rods 
should  be  examined  to  see  that  it  is  tight.  The  elec- 


no 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


trie  wiring  and  the  lamp  connectors  should  be  exam- 
ined for  any  looseness.  The  front  and  rear  axles 
should  be  carefully  gone  over  to  see  that  every  moving 
part,  such  as  the  bushings  in  the  spring  connections, 
the  spring  hangers,  the  steering  knuckles  and  the  hub 
bearings  are  thoroughly  lubricated  and  that  all  nuts 
and  connections  are  secured  with  cotter  pins.  The 
spring  clips,  which  attach  the  front  and  rear  springs 
to  the  frame,  should  be  inspected  frequently  to  see 
that  everything  is  in  perfect  order. 

Each  of  the  tires  should  be  tested  to  see  that  it  is 
properly  inflated.  More  tires  give  out  from  insuffi- 
cient inflation  than  from  anything  else.  Air  costs 
nothing ; tires  are  expensive.  Remember  it  is  the  air 
in  the  tube  that  carries  the  load  and  cushions  the  road. 
The  front  tires  should  carry  a pressure  of  fifty  to 
fifty-five  pounds  and  the  rear  tires  sixty  to  sixty- 
five.  In  hot  weather  the  pressure  should  be  about 
five  pounds  less  than  in  cold  weather  on  account  of 
the  expansion  of  heated  air.  To  accurately  determine 
the  pressure  a reliable  pressure  gauge  should  be 
used.  In  the  absence  of  a gauge,  a good  rule  to 
follow  is  the  maintenance  of  sufficient  pressure  to 
prevent  the  tires  from  bulging  out  under  the  weight 
of  the  ear.  Tires  should  never  be  run  partially  de- 
flated, as  the  side  walls  are  unduly  bent  and  the 
fabric  is  subject  to  stresses  which  cause  what  is  known 
as  rim  cutting. 

EVERY  TWELVE  HUNDRED  MILES 

The  belt  which  drives  the  fan  for  drawing  air 
through  the  radiator  should  be  inspected  and  tight- 
ened if  necessary  by  means  of  the  adjusting  screw  in 
the  fan  bracket.  Take  up  the  slack  until  the  fan 


UPKEEP  AND  CARE 


111 


starts  to  bind  when  turned  by  band,  but  do  not  make 
this  adjustment  too  tight. 

The  entire  water  circulating  system  should  be  thor- 
oughly flushed  out.  To  do  this  properly  the  radiator 
inlet  and  outlet  hose  should  be  disconnected  and  the 
radiator  flushed  out  by  alloiidng  the  water  to  enter 
the  flller  neck  at  ordinary  pressui’e,  when  it  will  flow 
douTi  through  the  tubes  and  out  at  the  drain  cock  and 
hose.  The  engine  water  jackets  can  be  flushed  out 
in  the  same  manner.  Simply  allow  the  water  to  enter 
the  cylinder  head  connection  and  to  flow  through  the 
wmter  jackets  and  out  at  the  side  connection. 

The  spark  plugs  should  be  kept  clean  and  should 
be  replaced  if  they  persist  in  not  working  properly. 
All  wire  connections  to  spark  plugs,  coil  box  and  com- 
mutator should,  of  course,  be  at  all  times  kept  in 
perfect  contact. 

The  cover  of  the  commutator  should  be  removed 
and  the  inside  of  this  device  wdped  out  with  a clean 
cloth,  after  which  a small  amount  of  vaseline  or  oil 
should  be  added. 

The  bolts  which  fasten  the  engine  to  the  frame 
should  be  examined  to  make  sure  they  are  tight  and 
the  spring  shackle  bolts  and  the  spring  clips  should 
also  be  inspected  to  make  sure  that  none  of  the  nuts 
have  worked  loose. 

If  the  spring  clips  are  allowed  to  work  loose,  the 
entire  strain  is  put  on  the  tie  bolt  which  extends 
through  the  center  of  the  spring.  This  may  cause 
the  bolt  to  be  sheared  off  and  allow  the  frame  and 
body  to  shift  a trifle  to  one  side.  It  is  a good  plan 
to  frequently  inspect  the  clips  which  hold  the  springs 
to  the  frame  and  see  that  they  are  kept  tight. 

Each  of  the  four  tires  should  be  examined  all  the 


112 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


way  around  its  circumference,  and  if  there  are  any 
cuts  through  the  rubber,  they  should  be  cleaned  out 
and  preferably  vulcanized.  If  they  cannot  be  vul- 
canized, the  small  cuts  should  be  filled  with  some  of 
the  special  preparations  which  are  on  the  market  for 
such  purposes. 

e\t:ry  five  thousand  miles 

The  small  gears  which  allow  the  driver  to  turn  the 
steering  shaft  are  located  at  the  top  of  the  steering 
column  and  just  underneath  the  hub  of  the  hand 
wheel.  By  loosening  the  set  screw  and  unscrewing 
the  brass  cap,  after  having  removed  the  steering  wheel, 
they  may  be  readily  inspected  and  the  grease  replen- 
ished. To  remove  the  steering  wheel  unscrew  the 
brass  nut  on  top  of  the  post  and  drive  the  wheel  off 
the  shaft  with  a block  of  wood  and  a hammer. 

If  the  springs  are  somewhat  stitf,  take  a screw 
driver  and  pry  the  leaves  apart  near  the  ends  just 
enough  to  place  a little  lubricating  oil  or  graphite 
between  them.  You  wiU  find  that  repeating  this 
operation  about  twice  a month  wiU  add  materially 
to  the  riding  comfort  of  the  car. 

systematic  upkeep 

The  follovdng  tabulation  includes  all  of  the  items 
of  care  which  have  been  mentioned  in  the  foregoing 
pages  and  will  make  a convenient  outline  for  use  in 
caring  for  the  ear. 

Every  Day: 

Put  oil  through  engine  filler  until  it  rises  above 
lower  pet-cock. 


UPKEEP  AND  CARE 


113 


Every  Fifty  Miles: 

Look  for  oil,  water  and  fuel  leaks. 

Shake  rear  wheels  to  see  that  they  are  tight. 

Shake  front  wheels  to  test  bearings  for  looseness. 

Every  Two  Hundred  Miles: 

Oil  the  front  spring  shackles. 

Oil  steering  spindle  bolts. 

Oil  ball  and  socket  joints  on  steering  rods. 

Oil  rear  wheel  hub  brake  cams. 

Oil  rear  spring  shackles. 

Put  vaseline  in  the  commutator. 

Turn  grease  cup  on  fan  hub. 

Turn  grease  cups  on  rear  axle. 

Test  steering  gear  ball  and  socket  joints  for  loose- 
ness. 

Put  kerosene  in  engine  cylinders  while  hot. 

Every  Four  Hundred  Miles: 

Oil  brake  rod  brackets  and  support. 

Oil  hood  lacing. 

Oil  the  starting  crank. 

Oil  the  door  hinges  and  locks. 

Turn  grease  cup  at  bottom  of  steering  column. 
Turn  grease  cup  on  universal  joint. 

Turn  grease  cup  at  forward  end  of  drive  shaft. 
Put  grease  or  vaseline  in  front  wheel  hearings. 
Examine  wiring  for  loose  connections. 

Examine  ball  joint  under  engine  for  looseness. 
Test  the  compression  of  each  cylinder  with  starting 
crank. 

Test  inflation  pressure  of  each  tire. 


114 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


Every  Twelve  Hundred  Miles: 

Clean  spark  plugs  and  set  gaps  to  3^2  inch. 

Clean  inside  of  commutator. 

Flush  the  cooling  system. 

Test  the  fan  belt  adjustment. 

Examine  engine  bolts  for  looseness. 

Test  the  spring  shackle  holts  for  looseness. 

Test  the  spring  clip  nuts  for  looseness. 

Test  the  front  wheel  alignment. 

Kepair  cuts  in  tires. 

Every  Five  Thousand  Mdes: 

Test  body  bolts  for  looseness. 

Put  grease  in  gear  case  under  steering  wheel. 

Lubricate  spring  leaves. 

If  the  above  outline  is  followed  it  will  mean  that 
the  items  under  the  fifty-mile  heading  will  be  cared 
for  every  time  the  speedometer  shows  that  this  dis- 
tance has  been  traveled.  At  two  hundred  miles  it 
will  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  points  under  the  two 
hundred  mile  heading  and  also  those  under  the  fifty- 
mile  heading,  because  two  hundred  is  a multiple  of 
fifty.  For  a similar  reason  it  will  be  necessary,  when 
the  four  hundred  mile  list  is  cared  for,  to  take  care 
of  those  specified  at  two  hundred  miles  as  well  as  of 
those  called  for  at  fifty.  At  twelve  hundred  miles 
the  lists  for  four  hundred,  for  two  hundred  and  for 
fifty  miles  should  also  be  gone  over,  while  at  the  end 
of  five  thousand  miles  all  of  the  items  should  be 
checked. 

GENERAL  INSTRUCTION'S 

A light  grade  oil  is  preferred,  as  it  will  naturally 
reach  the  bearings  vdth  greater  ease,  and  consequently 


UPKEEP  AND  CARE 


115 


less  heat  will  develop  on  account  of  friction.  The 
oil  should,  however,  have  sufficient  body  so  that  the 
pressure  between  the  bearing  surfaces  will  not  force 
the  oil  out  and  allow  the  metal  to  come  into  actual 
contact.  Heavy  and  inferior  oils  have  a tendency 
to  carbonize  quickly,  also  to  gum  up  the  piston  rings 
the  valve  stems  and  the  bearings.  In  cold  weather 
a light  grade  of  oil  is  absolutely  essential  for  the 
proper  lubrication  of  the  car.  Graphite  should  not 
be  used  as  a lubricant  in  the  engine  or  transmission 
as  it  will  have  a tendency  to  short-circuit  the  magneto. 

When  it  is  advisable  to  fill  the  grease  cups,  screw 
them  down,  then  refill  them  with  grease  and  repeat  the 
operation  two  or  three  times.  Always  open  oil  cups 
by  turning  to  the  right,  as  this  keeps  tightening  the 
threads  rather  than  loosening  them.  Occasionally  re- 
move the  front  wheels  and  supply  grease  to  wearing 
surfaces.  A drop  of  oil  now  and  then  in  the  crank- 
handle  bearing  is  necessary,  also  on  the  fan  belt  pul- 
leys and  shaft.  The  axles,  drive  shaft  and  universal 
joint  were  well  supplied  with  lubricant  when  the 
car  left  the  factory,  but  it  is  well  to  examine  and  oil 
them. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  wiring 
and  other  ignition  parts  are  kept  perfectly  clean,  be- 
cause grease,  oil,  moisture  or  dirt  on  these  parts  Avill 
surely  lead  to  trouble.  Whenever  the  engine  is 
cleaned  it  is  advisable  to  wash  the  radiator  both  from 
the  front  and  from  the  back  to  remove  any  accumu- 
lations of  mud  or  dust,  which  are  very  detrimental 
to  the  action  of  this  part  of  the  ear. 

When  putting  the  top  doAvn  be  careful  in  folding 
to  see  that  the  fabric  is  not  pinched  between  the  boAV 
spacers,  as  they  will  chafe  a hole  through  the  top 


116 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


very  quickly.  Always  slip  the  hood  over  the  top 
when  folded  to  keep  out  dust  and  dirt.  Applying  a 
good  top  dressing  will  greatly  improve  the  appear- 
ance of  an  old  top. 

The  top  should  be  raised  occasionally  and  allowed 
to  remain  up  for  a while  so  that  the  creases  which 
finally  end  in  cracks  may  be  avoided.  The  top  should 
never  be  folded  while  it  is  still  damp. 

In  washing  the  car  always  use  cold  or  lukewarm 
water,  never  hot  water.  If  a hose  is  used,  don’t  turn 
the  water  on  at  full  force,  as  this  drives  the  dirt  into 
the  varnish  and  injures  the  finish.  After  the  mud 
and  grime  have  been  washed  off,  take  a sponge  and 
clean  the  body  and  running  gear  with  a tepid  solution 
of  water  and  Ivory  or  linseed  oil  soap.  Then  rinse 
off  with  cold  water,  rub  dry  and  polish  the  body  with 
a chamois  skin.  A body  or  furniture  polish  of  good 
quality  may  be  used  to  add  lustre  to  the  car.  Grease 
on  the  running  gear  may  be  removed  with  a gasoline- 
soaked  sponge  or  rag.  The  brasswork  may  be  polished 
with  any  good  metal  polish.  A satisfactory  body  pol- 
ish may  be  made  from  four  to  five  parts  of  kerosene 
and  one  of  gasoline. 

Tire  cost  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important 
items  in  the  running  expense  of  an  automobile.  To 
get  the  most  service  at  the  least  expense  the  tires 
should  be  inspected  frequentlj^  and  all  small  cuts  or 
holes  properly  sealed  or  repaired,  thus  preventing 
dirt  and  water  from  working  in  between  the  rubber 
tread  and  the  fabric  and  causing  blisters  or  sand 
boils. 

The  chances  of  getting  a puncture  will  be  greatly 
reduced  by  keeping  the  tires  properly  inflated,  as  a 
hard  tire  exposes  much  less  surface  to  the  road  than 


UPKEEP  AND  CARE 


117 


a soft  tire,  and  also  deflects  sharp  objects  that  would 
penetrate  a soft  tire.  Eunning  a tire  flat,  even  for  a 
short  distance,  is  sure  to  be  costly.  It  is  better  to  run 
on  the  rim,  very  slowly  and  carefully,  rather  than  on  a 
flat  tire.  Remember  that  fast  driving  and  skidding 
shorten  the  life  of  the  tires.  Avoid  locking  the  wheels 
with  the  brakes,  because  no  tire  will  stand  the  strain 
of  being  dragged  over  the  pavement  in  this  fashion. 
Avoid  running  in  street  car  tracks,  in  ruts,  or  bump- 
ing the  side  of  the  tire  against  the  curbing.  The  wheel 
rims  should  be  painted  each  season  and  kept  free  from 
rust. 

When  a car  is  idle  for  any  appreciable  length  of 
time,  it  should  be  jacked  up  to  take  the  load  off  the 
tires.  If  the  ear  is  laid  up  for  many  months  it  is  best 
to  remove  the  tires,  wrap  up  the  outer  casings  and 
inner  tubes  separately  and  store  them  in  a dark  room 
which  is  not  exposed  to  extreme  temperatures.  Re- 
move oil  or  grease  from  the  tires  with  gasoline. 
Remember  that  heat,  light  and  oil  are  three  natural 
enemies  of  rubber.  The  wear  on  the  tires  may  be 
evenly  distributed  by  shifting  those  on  the  right  side 
to  the  left  at  the  end  of  about  one  thousand  miles 
running. 

Spare  inner  tubes  should  be  properly  folded  and 
cared  for.  First  remove  the  valve  plunger  so  it  is 
possible  to  expel  all  the  air  from  the  tube,  then  replace 
the  plunger  and  lay  the  tube  flat  on  the  floor  or  ground 
with  the  valve  in  the  middle  pointing  upward  and 
equidistant  from  the  two  folded  ends.  To  do  this  it  is 
necessary  to  turn  the  tube  with  that  side  outward  that 
lies  next  the  rim  when  in  use.  Fold  the  ends  upon 
themselves  with  the  outermost  parts  brought  up  to 
the  valve  and  then  laid  flat.  A second  fold  is  then 


118 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


made  by  picking  up  the  two  outer  folds  and  bringing 
them  together  and  at  the  same  time  lifting  the  tube 
from  the  ground.  The  tube  will  then  lie  in  four  flat 
folds  with  the  valve  projecting  upward  between  them 
at  the  bottom.  A stout  rubber  band  snapped  over  the 
outside  will  hold  the  tube  in  proper  shape. 

LUBRICATION 

The  oil  used  to  lubricate  the  gasoline  engine  is 
obtained  by  distilling  crude  petroleum.  This  distilla- 
tion results  in  the  separation  of  gasoline,  kerosene  and 
various  grades  of  lubricating  oils  among  many  other 
products. 

The  quality  of  this  oil  is  subject  to  test  by  a number 
of  standards,  several  of  which  will  be  mentioned  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  they  are  often  brought  up  while 
buying  and  selling  these  lubricants.  The  quality  most 
often  mentioned  is  that  called  viscosity.  Viscosity 
might  be  translated  by  the  word  thickness.  Viscosity 
is  generally  expressed  in  the  time  required  for  a cer- 
tain quantity  of  oil  to  pass  through  a given  sized 
opening.  An  oil  having  high  viscosity  will  require 
a longer  time  to  pass  through  this  opening  than  will 
one  of  low  viscosity.  An  oil  of  high  \dscosity  is  gen- 
erally called  heavy,  while  one  of  low  viscosity  is  classed 
as  a light  oil.  Another  standard  is  known  as  gravity, 
and  this  means  the  weight  of  a given  volume  of  the 
oil  as  compared  with  the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of 
water.  The  gravity  of  an  oil  is  not  of  as  great  im- 
portance as  is  the  viscosity. 

The  degree  of  heat  at  which  the  oil  is  consumed  is 
measured  according  to  two  standards.  The  first  is 
called  the  flash  test,  and  this  is  the  number  of  degrees 
in  temperature  at  which  the  vapor  given  olf  by  the  oil 


UPKEEP  AND  CARE 


119 


will  take  fire  when  a fiame  is  applied.  The  fire  point 
of  the  oil  is  the  temperature  at  which  the  body  of 
heated  lubricant  will  take  fire  and  continue  to  buriu 
There  is  a third  temperature  test  called  the  cold  test, 
and  this  is  the  point  at  which  the  oil  becomes  so  thick 
from  cold  that  it  can  no  longer  be  readily  poured. 

The  carbon  content  of  an  oil  is  determined  by  evapo- 
rating a certain  quantity  of  the  lubricant  with  heat 
until  nothing  is  left  but  a solid  deposit  in  the  vessel 
from  which  the  evaporation  has  taken  place. 

This  deposit  is  weighed  and  compared  with  the 
original  weight  of  the  oil  being  tested.  This  standard 
does  not  necessarily  give  any  indication  of  the  amount 
of  carbon  that  will  be  left  in  a gasoline  engine  by  the 
use  of  the  oil  being  tested. 

The  color  of  the  oil  as  compared  with  some  standard 
color  is  not  a reliable  indication  of  any  of  its  lubri- 
cating qualities. 

It  is  hard  for  the  motorist  to  determine  the  prac- 
tical value  of  the  standards  just  mentioned  in  pur- 
chasing oils.  The  fiash  and  fire  tests  are  of  course  val- 
uable and  both  should  be  rather  high.  An  oil  having 
a flash  point  much  below  400  to  450  degrees  Fahren- 
heit will  show  a considerable  loss  from  evaporation, 
due  to  the  heat  in  the  crankcase  of  the  engine.  An 
oil  having  a low  fire  point  will  be  easily  separated 
into  elements  which  differ  radically  from  the  original 
lubricant.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  any  lubri- 
cating oil  will  have  a fire  test  sufficiently  high  to  resist 
the  heat  found  in  the  combustion  space  of  the  engine. 

The  viscosity  of  the  oil  should  be  just  high  enough 
to  keep  a film  between  the  moving  surfaces  in  the 
engine  and  between  the  surfaces  of  the  bearings  and 
the  journals  which  revolve  inside  of  them. 


120 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


An  oil  heavier  than  this  will  materially  reduce  the 
power  of  the  engine  hecausd  of  friction  between  its 
particles,  while  a lighter  oil  will  not  allow  the  engine 
to  deliver  its  full  power.  When  an  engine  becomes 
badly  worn  it  is  desirable  to  use  an  oil  having  a com- 
paratively heavy  body  which  provides  cushion  between 
the  parts  and  reduces  the  noise.  The  most  desirable 
oils  for  general  use  are  those  having  a Sayholt  vis- 
cosity of  between  200  and  300  seconds. 

The  carbon  content  of  an  oil  will  vary  almost  di- 
rectly with  its  viscosity,  that  is,  a hea\y  oil  contains  a 
greater  portion  of  fixed  carbon  than  does  a light  oil. 
This  brings  out  a serious  objection  to  using  a hea^’y 
oil  even  in  a badly  worn  engine,  because  in  such  an 
engine  there  is  sufficient  clearance  between  the  pistons 
and  the  cylinder  walls  to  allow  a considerable  quan- 
tity of  the  oil  to  work  up  into  the  combustion  chamber, 
and  with  a heavy  oil  in  use,  this  will  result  in  a greater 
carbon  deposit  than  would  be  the  case  with  a light  oil. 
This  would  indicate  that  a rather  light  bodied  oil 
should  be  used  under  all  conditions. 

The  cold  test  is  of  value  only  as  compared  with  the 
temperatures  generally  prevailing  in  the  locality  in 
which  the  car  is  being  used.  When  the  car  stands 
idle,  all  of  the  parts  of  the  engine,  which  of  course 
include  the  lubricating  system,  will  reach  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere,  and  if  this  temperature  is 
below  the  point  at  which  the  oil  congeals,  then  there 
will  be  danger  that  no  lubricant  will  flow  to  the  mov- 
ing surfaces  until  after  the  parts  have  warmed  up. 
Otherwise  the  cold  test  of  an  oil  has  no  bearing  on  its 
lubricating  qualities. 

The  attention  of  Ford  users  should  be  called  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  not  safe  to  introduce  graphite  as  a lubri- 


UPKEEP  AND  CARE 


121 


cant  into  the  engine  because  the  same  oil  which  passes 
through  the  engine  system  also  serves  to  lubricate  the 
transmission  and  the  clutch.  The  action  of  graphite 
is  to  fill  the  small  indentations  of  a surface  so  that  it 
becomes  perfectly  smooth  and  very  slippery  at  all 
points.  This  condition  would  be  highly  undesirable 
in  the  transmission  bands  and  under  some  conditions 
on  the  clutch  discs,  and  would  obtain  were  the  bands 
and  their  drums  to  be  covered  with  graphite.  It 
would  then  be  almost  impossible  to  draw  them  tight 
enough  to  hold  and  to  drive  the  car.  Graphite  may 
be  safely  used  in  any  combination  in  the  rear  axle,  in 
the  front  wheel  bearings,  in  the  steering  gear  or  at  any 
other  point  on  the  car  where  there  will  be  no  danger 
of  its  reaching  the  clutch  or  transmission. 

CARBON 

The  carbon  deposit  which  is  often  found  in  the  com- 
bustion space  of  an  engine  consists  in  part  of  road 
dust  and  other  impurities  drawn  in  through  the  car- 
buretor and  also  includes  a considerable  amount  of 
true  carbon  which  has  resulted  from  the  incomplete 
combustion  of  the  gasoline  and  air  mixture  and  the 
burning  of  that  part  of  the  lubricating  oil  which  has 
found  its  way  past  the  rings  and  into  the  space  above 
the  piston. 

A condition  which  contributes  materially  toward  the 
increase  of  carbon  deposit  is  that  of  poorly  fitted  and 
leaking  piston  rings.  Such  a condition  makes  it  im- 
possible for  the  lubricating  oil  to  seal  the  space  be- 
tween the  piston  and  the  cylinder  walls,  and  the  result 
is  that  an  excess  of  oil  is  drawn  up  into  the  combustion 
space  during  the  inlet  stroke  when  there  is  a partial 


122 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


vacuum  and  a considerable  suction  in  this  part  of 
the  engine. 

Carbonization  of  the  engine  will  always  result  from 
the  use  of  a poor  grade  of  oil  and  it  will  also  result 
from  the  use  of  an  oil  which  is  either  too  light  or  too 
heavy.  Carrying  the  oil  level  so  high  that  the  exhaust 
becomes  smoky  every  time  the  engine  is  raced  will  also 
do  its  part  toward  increasing  the  amount  of  carbon. 

After  a certain  amount  of  this  carbon  has  been  de- 
posited on  the  walls  of  the  combustion  chamber  it 
acts  to  materially  reduce  the  volume  of  the  compres- 
sion  space  and  the  resulting  increase  of  pressure  at 
the  end  of  the  compression  stroke  tends  to  make  the 
engine  more  liable  to  pre-ignition.  An  engine  will 
stand  quite  a deposit  of  carbon  without  the  com- 
pression being  raised  to  a dangerous  point,  but  if  the 
deposit  increases  beyond  this  point  trouble  will  follow 
and  will  manifest  itself  in  knocking  at  low  speed  and 
whenever  the  engine  is  pulling  hard. 

After  the  carbon  deposit  reaches  a certain  thick- 
ness it  will  separate  into  flakes  and  the  edges  of  these 
flakes  will  curl  up  away  from  the  iron  of  the  com- 
bustion space.  Carbon  is  not  a good  conductor  of 
beat  and  these  curled  up  portions  soon  become  red 
hot  from  the  heat  of  the  power  strokes.  These 
red  hot  points  will  remain  at  this  high  temperature 
during  the  exhaust  stroke,  and  when  fresh  gas  is 
admitted^  to  the  cylinder,  it  will  ignite  before  the 
piston  reaches  the  top  of  the  compression  stroke. 
This  action  is  called  pre-ignition.  It  causes  hea^y 
pounding  and  is  very  destructive  to  the  bearings  as 
well  as  seriously  diminishing  the  power  output  of  the 
engine  because  of  the  force  which  is  exerted  on  the 
crankshaft  in  a reverse  direction. 


UPKEEP  AND  CARE 


123 


One  of  the  surest  ways  to  prevent  deposit  of  carbon 
in  the  engine  is  to  cut  down  the  fuel  supply  by  turning 
the  dash  adjustment  to  the  right  while  the  engine  is 
running  and  after  it  is  hot.  This  cutting  of  the  gaso- 
line proportion  in  the  mixture  should  be  continued 
until  there  is  a noticeable  decrease  in  the  speed  of  the 
engine  or  until  there  is  a spitting  or  popping  back 
through  the  carburetor.  The  dash  adjustment  should 
then  be  turned  a very  little  to  the  left  and  allowed 
to  remain  there.  Flooding  of  the  carburetor  in  start- 
ing and  too  rich  a mixture  in  running  is  sure  to  cause 
the  formation  of  a great  deal  of  soot  in  the  engine. 

Oil  should  never  be  poured  into  the  engine  through 
a filler  that  has  become  covered  with  dust  and  sand, 
because  these  impurities  will  be  carried  into  the  oiling 
system  and  will  do  serious  harm.  It  is  a mistake  to 
use  a very  light  bodied  oil  because  such  an  oil,  while 
operating  at  high  temperature,  will  become  so  thin 
that  it  is  of  little  value.  It  is  also  a mistake  to  use 
an  extremely  heavy  oil  with  the  expectation  that  it 
will  cause  an  engine  in  poor  condition  to  run  properly. 
It  is  not  possible  for  any  oil  to  make  up  for  leaky 
rings  or  loose  bearings.  Using  an  oversupply  of  oil  for 
the  same  purpose  does  no  good  and  in  fact  does  pos- 
sible harm  in  adding  to  carbon  deposits. 

The  user  of  a car  should  not  fail  to  drain  the  old  oil 
out  of  the  crankcase  at  proper  intervals.  After  the 
oil  has  been  drained  away  the  crankcase  should  be 
washed  out  with  kerosene  before  putting  in  a fresh 
supply  of  lubricant.  Systematic  regularity  in  doing 
this  work  and  also  in  supplying  oil  and  grease  to  all 
parts  of  the  car  is  a sure  method  of  securing  freedom 
from  small  troubles  while  driving.  Proper  oiling  is 
the  most  important  thing  to  look  after  in  the  operation 


124 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


of  an  automobile  because  a majority  of  troubles  arise 
in  this  direction. 

In  selecting  an  oil  for  use  its  viscosity  cannot  be 
properly  judged  while  it.  is  at  atmospheric  tempera- 
ture. The  heat  causes  it  to  become  thinner  when  in 
use  in  the  engine.  No  grease  that  is  not  of  the  semi- 
fluid type  should  be  used  except  in  some  of  the  grease 
cups.  When  a hard  grease  is  used  in  the  rear  axle 
housing  or  in  the  wheel  bearings,  the  revolving  parts 
simply  cut  a track  through  the  body  of  the  grease 
and  thereafter  obtain  very  little  lubrication. 


TONNEAU  MAT 
TmE  VALVE  - 
FRAME 


MUFFLER  EXHAUST  PIPE 
RUNNING  OOARD  ORACKET 
RUNNING  OOARP  SHIELD 
DRIVE.  SHAFT  TUOE 
DOOY  BRACKET  ION  FRAME) 


CRANK  SHAFT 
CARBURETOR 

CAM  SHAFT 
SPARK  PLUG  WIRES 
HOOD  SUPPORT 
DASH 

COMBUSTION  CHAMerft 

PUSH  ROD 

VALVE 

LOWER.  CliANK  CASE 

uppea  crank  case 
INTAKE  PIPE 
EXHAUST  PIPE 
FRONT  RADIUS  ROD 
SPARK  PLUO 
RADIATOR  ROD 
HOOD 

CYUNDER  HEAD  OUTLET  HOSE 
RADIATOR  FILLER'CAP 
RADIATOR  filler  FLANGE 

RADIATOR 

FAN 

FRONT  FENDER  (LH) 

FAN  BELT 
BREATHER  PIPE 
CVLiNOER  COVER  (FRONT  END) 
COMMUTATOR 
RAOiATOa  INLET  HOSE 
FRONT  W'HEEU 
STARTING  CRANK 
STEERING  BALL  CONNECTINO  ROD 
FRONT  SPRING 
STEERING  SPiNOlE  CONNECTING  ROD 
FRONT  AXLE 


RADIUS  ftOP  BALL  SOCKET 
MAGNETO  COILS 
MAGNETS 
FLY  WHEEL 
CLUTCH  FINGERS 
TIRE  VALVE 
TRANSMISSION  CASE 
HAND  LEVER  CONTROLLER  OUADRANT 
UNIVERSAL  JOINT 

hand  lever  controller  shaft 

RUNNING  OOARD  &TRUS!  ROP^CHET 
GASOLINE  TANK  SUPPORT 
GASOLINE  FEED  PIPE 
SEDIMENT  OULO 
DRAIN  COCK 


Figure  42. — Tlie  Parts  of  the  Ford  Car  with  Their  Names. 


CHAPTER  V 
POWEE  PLANT  EEPAIE 

It  is  the  intention  in  the  following  pages  to  give 
the  user  of  a Ford  car  such  practical  information  as 
is  necessary  in  making  all  ordinary  adjustments  and 
repairs.  It  is  not  intended  as  a complete  manual  of 
motor  car  mechanics,  but  more  as  a simple  explana- 
tion called  for  by  the  Ford  ear  as  distinct  from  all 
other  ears. 

It  is  very  seldom  necessary  to  remove  the  engine 
from  the  frame,  but  should  it  be  desirable  to  do  so, 
there  is  a right  way  to  handle  the  work,  and  this  way 
is  described  below. 

First,  drain  the  water  out  of  the  radiator  and  dis- 
connect the  radiator  hose.  Second,  disconnect  the 
radiator  stay  rod  which  holds  it  to  the  dash.  Third, 
take  out  the  two  bolts  which  fasten  the  radiator  to 
the  frame  and  take  the  radiator  off.  Fourth,  dis- 
ionneet  the  dash  at  the  two  supporting  brackets  which 
.•est  on  the  frame.  Fifth,  loosen  the  steering  post 
> oraeket  which  is  ■ fastened  to  the  frame,  and  dash 
and  steering  gear  may  then  be  removed  as  one  assem- 
bly, the  wires  having  first  been  disconnected.  Sixth, 
take  out  the  bolts  holding  the  front  radius  rods  in 
the  socket  underneath  the  engine  crankcase.  Sev- 
enth, remove  the  four  bolts  at  the  universal  joint. 
Eighth,  remove  the  pans  on  either  side  of  cylinder 
casting,  turn  off  the  gasoline  and  disconnect  the  feed 
pipe  from  the  carburetor.  Ninth,  disconnect  the  ex- 

125 


126 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


haust  manifold  from  the  exhaust  pipe  by  unscrewing 
the  large  brass  packing  nut.  Tenth,  take  out  the 
two  cap  screws  which  hold  the  crankcase  to  the  front 
end  of  the  frame.  Eleventh,  remove  the  bolts  which 
hold  the  crankcase  arms  to  the  frame  at  each  side. 
Then  pass  a rope  through  the  opening  between  the 
two  middle  cylinders  and  tie  in  a loose  knot.  Through 
the  rope  pass  a 2x4,  or  a stout  iron  pipe  about  ten 
feet  long,  and  let  a man  hold  each  end.  Let  a third 
man  take  hold  of  the  starting  crank  handle  and  the 
whole  power  plant  can  be  lifted  from  the  car  to  a 
work  bench  for  adjustment. 

In  case  it  is  found  necessary  during  any  of  the 
w^ork  to  remove  the  cylinder  castings  from  the  engine, 
a great  deal  of  time  and  effort  will  be  saved  by  using 
the  following  suggestions  in  replacing  these  parts  of 
the  engine. 

Before  replacing  the  cylinder  castings  on  the  en- 
gine, the  outside  of  the  pistons  and  the  inside  of  the 
cylinders  must  be  well  oiled  with  ordinary  cylinder 
oil.  Have  two  of  the  pistons  up  as  far  as  they  wiU 
go  and  the  other  two  down  as  far  as  they  will  go. 
Let  one  man  lower  the  cylinders  onto  the  pistons  while 
another  holds  the  pistons  vertical  and  in  the  proper 
position.  The  cylinders  must  be.  lowered  without 
twisting  them  or  the  pistons  to,  one  side  or  the  other. 

The  person  holding  the  pistons  must  press  the  piston 
rings  tight  into  their  grooves  so  that  the  cylinders 
can  slip  down  over  them.  This  can  usually  be  done 
wdth  the  thumbs,  although  it  may  be  necessarj^  to  use 
a band  of  wire  or  thin  hoop. 

All  of  the  nuts  that  hold  the  cylinders  to  the  crank- 
case should  be  placed  on  the  bolts  before  any  are  made 
tight.  All  the  nuts  should  then  be  turned  down  until 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


127 


they  begin  to  draw  tight.  Then  go  from  one  to  the 
next,  tightening  each  a little,  until  all  are  drawn 
evenly.  Do  not  draw  one  nut  tight  and  then  go  to 
the  next. 

Great  care  must  be  used  to  see  that  the  flywheel 
is  in  exactly  the  same  position  on  the  end  of  the 
crankshaft  as  when  the  engine  was  taken  apart.  The 
whe6l  should  be  marked  before  removal  to  insure 
correct  replacement.  Every  bolt  in  the  flywheel 
mounting  parts  must  make  a perfectly  tight  and  true 
fit  without  looseness  at  any  point.  The  nuts  that 
keep  the  flywheel  in  place  must  be  fastened  either 
with  cotter  pins,  wires  through  the  bolts,  locking 
nuts  or  other  means  that  can  be  depended  on  to  pre- 
vent them  from  working  loose. 

Piston  Rings. — Piston  rings  are  made  of  cast  iron 
and  break  very  easily,  as  this  metal  is  brittle.  Great 
care  is  required  in  taking  them  out  of  their  grooves. 

The  following  procedure  should  be  followed:  Lift 
one  end  of  the  ring  with  a small  screw  driver  until 
you  can  slip  a thin  piece  of  metal,  such  as  a piece  of 
hack  saw  blade,  under  the  end  of  the  ring,  thus  hold- 
ing it  up  out  of  the  groove.  This  piece  of  metal 
should  point  up  and  down  the  length  of  the  piston 
and  should  be  slid  around  under  the  ring  until  it  is 
directly  opposite  the  opening  in  the  ring. 

As  this  piece  is  pushed  away  from  the  opening, 
another  similar  piece  is  placed  under  the  end  of  the 
ring  so  that  the  end  will  not  again  enter  the  groove. 
Leave  this  second  piece  near  the  opening  and  put  a 
third  piece  under  the  other  end  of  the  ring  and  a 
little  way  from  the  opening.  When  these  three  pieces 
are  in  the  right  position  the  ring  will  be  raised  en- 
tirely out  of  the  groove  and  will  rest  on  the  short 


128 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


pieces.  The  ring  may  then  be  pnlled  up  and  oif  the 
piston. 

To  replace  the  rings:  Open  the  ring  just  enough 

to  slip  it  onto  the  top  of  the  piston  and  then  place 
the  metal  strips  in  the  same  position  as  for  remo>ying 
the  ring.  Slide  the  ring  down  until  it  is  over  its 
groove  and  pull  the  metal  strips  out,  thus  allowing 
the  ring  to  fall  into  place.  It  is  important  to  take 
the  top  off  first  and  to  put  the  bottom  ring  on  first. 

Before  placing  the  rings  in  their  grooves  see  that 
they  fit  properly  by  rolling  the  ring  all  the  way 
around  in  the  groove  before  attempting  to  put  it  on 
the  piston.  If  the  ring  binds  at  any  point  cut  it 
down  with  a fine  file  until  it  is  an  easy  fit  all  around. 

The  openings  in  piston  rings  that  are  nest  to  each 
other  must  be  as  far  apart  as  possible  so  that  escaping 
gas  will  have  to  travel  a long  distance  around  the 
outside  of  the  piston  before  getting  past  the  last  ring. 
There  are  three  rings  and  the  opening  in  the  second 
one  should  be  one-third  of  the  distance  around  the 
piston  from  the  opening  in  the  first  one,  and  the 
opening  in  the  third  should  be  another  third  of  the 
way  around  from  the  opening  in  the  second. 

Compression  Loss. — Three  out  of  the  four  strokes 
of  the  gasoline  engine  depend  for  their  effectiveness 
on  the  fact  that  the  combustion  space  and  interior  of 
the  cylinder  are  perfectly  gas-tight  except  for  the 
valve  openings. 

These  strokes  are  the  inlet,  the  compression  and 
the  power.  The  inlet  stroke  would  not  be  effective 
were  it  possible  to  draw  gas  or  air  from  any  other 
source  than  the  carburetor.  The  gas  could  not  be 
compressed  to  the  proper  degree  if  it  could  escape 
through  any  openings  whatever.  ]\Iueh  of  the  effort 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


129 


of  the  power  stroke  would  be  wasted  if  the  expanding 
gas  could  escape  in  place  of  pushing  on  the  piston. 

As  the  word  compression  is  used  in  automobile 
work  it  really  means  gas  tightness.  If  there  are  no 
appreciable  leaks  from  the  combustion  space  the  en- 
gine is  said  to  have  good  compression.  If  the  gas 
can  lind  any  way  out  of  the  cylinder  other  than 
through  the  valve  openings  with  the  valves  open  it 
is  said  to  have  poor  compression. 

Considered  in  this  way,  compression  is  one  of  the 
most  important  things  in  automobile  work,  and  this 
word  is  naturally  in  constant  use  among  those  engaged 
in  repairing. 

It  may  be  possible  for  the  gas  to  find  any  one  of 
several  chances  to  escape  through  openings  or  leaks 
around  the  valves  and  valve  parts.  The  most  com- 
mon point  of  leakage  is  between  the  valve  face  and 
valve  seat.  The  face  and  seat  of  poppet  valves  are 
tapered  and  -ground  to  an  accurate  fit  on  each  other, 
so  that,  when  the  valve  is  closed,  a gas-tight  fit  is  the 
result.  The  valve  head  raises  from  the  seat  and  goes 
back  to  it  many  thousands  of  times  an  hour  while 
the  engine  is  running  and  the  flow  of  burning  exhaust 
gas  over  the  face  and  seat  finally  pits  the  metal  until 
it  can  no  longer  make  a good  fit.  Particles  of  dirt 
or  carbon  often  lodge  between  the  valve  face  and  seat 
and  cause  the  valve  to  remain  partly  open  so  that 
the  gas  can  escape.  These  troubles  call  for  valve 
grinding,  which  is  described  later. 

The  valve  stem  passes  through  an  opening  called 
the  valve  stem  guide.  This  guide  serves  to  keep  the 
valve  in  the  proper  position  for  correct  seating.  If 
the  stem  becomes  warped  or  bent  it  will  bind  and  pre- 
vent the  face  from  coming  down  onto  the  seat  with 


130 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


a gas-tight  fit.  The  stem  may  have  a ridge  or  shoul- 
der worn  on  it,  and  this  shoulder  will  catch  on  the 
upper  edge  of  the  guide  opening  and  prevent  proper 
seating. 

The  valves  are  held  onto  their  seats  by  means  of  a 
strong  coiled  spring.  Should  this  spring  break  or 
become  weak,  the  face  will  no  longer  be  pulled  onto 
the  seat  tight  enough  to  make  a proper  fit. 

Carbon  Bemoval. — Once  the  deposit  of  carbon  has 
become  burned  on  the  piston  head  and  parts  of  the 
combustion  chamber  it  is  quite  difficult  to  remove. 
It  is  therefore  advisable  to  take  all  precautions  against 
such  a formation  taking  place  in  the  engine.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  oil  level  is  not  raised 
to  a point  that  causes  excessive  smoking  when  the 
engine  is  operated  at  moderately  high  speeds.  It  has 
already  been  recommended  to  place  in  each  of  the 
engine  cylinders  about  one-half  cup  of  kerosene  each 
week.  This  is  done  by  removing  a spark  plug  and 
pouring  the  kerosene  through  the  opening  while  the 
engine  is  hot. 

Once  the  carbon  deposit  has  formed  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  give  trouble  from  pre-ignition  it  will  be 
necessary  to  remove  it  by  taking  the  cylinder  heads 
off  and  using  a scraper  on  the  various  parts  until 
the  carbon  has  been  separated  from  the  iron  at  all 
points.  This  work  should  be  done  as  follows: 

First,  drain  the  water  by  opening  the  pet-cock  at 
the  bottom  of  the  radiator ; then  disconnect  the  wires 
at  the  top  of  the  engine  and  also  disconnect  the  radi- 
ator connection  attached  to  the  engine.  Eemove  the 
fifteen  bolts  which  hold  the  cylinder  head  in  place. 
Take  off  the  cylinder  head  and,  with  a putty  knife 
or  screwdriver,  scrape  from  .the  cylinder  and  piston 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


131 


heads  the  carbonized  matter,  being  careful  to  pre- 
vent specks  of  carbon  from  getting  into  the  cylinders 
or  into  the  bolt  holes.  In  replacing  the  cylinder  head 
gasket,  turn  the  crank  so  that  number  one  and  number 
four  pistons  are  at  the  top  center ; place  the  gasket  in 
position  over  the  pistons  and  then  put  the  cylinder 
head  in  place.  Be  sure  and  draw  the  cylinder  head 
bolts  down  evenly  by  giving  each  bolt  a few  turns  at 
a time.  Do  not  tighten  those  on  one  end  of  the  engine 
before  drawing  them  up  at  the  other. 

A method  of  carbon  removal  that  is  easier  of  ap- 
plication than  the  one  just  mentioned,  and  which 
gives  equally  good  results  when  properly  done,  is  that 
known  as  the  oxygen  process.  This  method  requires 
that  the  gasoline  supply  be  shut  off  and  the  engine 
run  until  all  fuel  is  exhausted,  after  which  the  piston 
of  the  cylinder  to  be  treated  is  brought  to  its  upper 
dead  center  and  allowed  to  remain  there.  A jet  of 
pure  oxygen  jinder  slight  pressure  is  then  introduced 
into  the  combustion  space  through  a flexible  nozzle 
and  a flame  is  applied  at  the  nozzle  opening.  The 
carbon  will  take  Are  in  the  presence  of  the  oxygen 
and  will  burn  with  great  rapidity  and  a large  volume 
of  sparks.  When  burning  does  not  continue,  even 
with  the  supply  of  oxygen  present,  the  carbon  has 
been  removed. 

Valve  Timing. — We  have  seen  that  the  inlet  valve 
must  be  open  during  the  inlet  stroke  and  that  the 
exhaust  valve  must  be  open  during  the  exhaust  stroke. 
Placing  the  timing  gears  in  mesh  with  their  teeth  to- 
gether so  that  these  valves  will  open  and  close  at 
just  the  right  time  is  known  as  valve  timing. 

When  the  mixture  of  gasoline  vapor  and  air  is 
compressed  and  fired  by  the  spark  it  makes  a very 


132 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


high,  pressure.  This  pressure  drives  the  piston  dovn 
in  the  cylinder  until  the  piston  moves  as  far  as  the 
crankshaft  and  connecting  rod  vdll  let  it  go.  The 
piston  is  then  at  the  bottom  of  the  stroke  and  must 
come  back. 

Exhaust  Valve  Tuning. — If  the  exhaust  valve  did 
not  open  until  the  piston  was  at  the  bottom  of  the 
stroke  the  opening  would  take  place  while  there  was 
a great  deal  of  pressure  in  the  cylinder,  and  inasmuch 
as  the  piston  must  start  back  toward  the  cylinder  head 
immediately  after  bottom  center,  the  piston  would 
be  pushed  hack  against  this  pressure.  A large  amount 
of  power  would  be  required  to  force  the  burned  gas 
out  of  the  cylinder  while  the  gas  was  under  so  much 
pressure,  and  this  useless  waste  would  prevent  the 
engine  from  delivering  as  much  power  as  it  should. 
The  work  that  the  piston  would  have  to  do  in  pushing 
back  against  the  pressure  left  in  the  cylinder  would 
use  up  some  of  the  energy  stored  in  the  Awheel,  and 
there  would  not  be  as  much  power  left  to  drive  the 
car  as  there  would  be  if  the  burned  gas  could  be  gotten 
out  of  the  cylinder  before  the  piston  starts  back. 

In  order  to  get  this  burned  gas  out  of  the  cylinder 
as  soon  as  possible,  so  that  the  piston  will  not  have  so 
much  work  on  the  return  stroke,  the  exhaust  valve  is 
made  to  open  while  the  piston  is  coming  down  on  the 
power  stroke.  That  is,  the  exhaust  valve  wAl  open 
before  the  piston  gets  to  the  lower  end  of  the  power 
stroke  and  will  start  to  let  the  burned  gas  out  so 
that  the  pressure  will  be  greatly  reduced  bj'  the  time 
the  piston  does  start  back  on  the  exhaust  stroke. 

The  exliaust  valve  then  stays  open  during  the  bal- 
ance of  the  power  stroke,  all  through  the  up  stroke, 
and  for  a short  time  after  top  center.  One  of  the 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


13S 


most  important  tilings  to  remember  in  valve  timing 
is  that  the  inlet  valve  must  not  open  until  after  the 
exhaust  valve  is  fully  closed.  The  rule  to  follow  in 
setting  the  opening  of  an  inlet  valve  is  to  have  it 
open  just  as  soon  after  the  exhaust  valve  closes  as  is 
possible  without  having  both  valves  open  at  the  same 
time. 

Inlet  Valve  Timing— As  the  piston  travels  down 
on  the  inlet  stroke  the  inlet  valve  will  be  open  and 
the  mixture  will  enter  the  cylinder  through  the  inlet 
valve  opening.  While  the  engine  is  running,  the 
piston  moves  down  in  the  cylinder  at  a high  rate  of 
speed  and  the  result  is  that  the  cylinder  is  not  com- 
pletely filled  with  mixture  because  the  mixture  that 
comes  in  is  stretched  out  in  the  same  way  that  the  air 
is  stretched  in  a pump  when  the  handle  is  pulled. 
After  the  plunger  of  a pump  is  at  the  end  of  its 
stroke  air  will  stiR  come  into  the  tube  of  the  pump. 
In  the  same  way  the  mixture  will  still  come  into  the 
cylinder  of  the  gasoline  engine  after  the  piston  has 
moved  clear  to  the  bottom  of  the  inlet  stroke.  The 
mixture  that  still  keeps  coming  in  fills  up  the  cylinder 
so  that  the  gas  is  no  longer  stretched  out. 

In  order  to  get  a cylinder  full  of  mixture  the  gas 
is  allowed  to  flow  in  after  the  piston  has  reached  the 
bottom  center.  It  would  not  be  practicable  to  stop 
the  engine  every  time  it  comes  to  this  point  while  the 
extra  mixture  comes  into  the  cylinder,  so  the  inlet 
valve  is  allowed  to  stay  open  after  bottom  center. 
The  relation  of  the  strokes  to  each  other  is  shown  in 
Figure  43. 

In  the  Ford  engine  only  one  camshaft  is  used.  This 
one  camshaft  carries  all  the  cams.  When  the  engine 
was  built  the  cams  were  placed  in  their  proper  posi- 


Figure  43. — The  Ford  ICnglnc  nnd  Trnusiiilssloii. 


POWDER  PLANT  REPAIR 


135 


tions  at  the  factory  so  that  they  open  and  close  the 
valves  at  the  proper  time  according  to  the  speed  and 
size  of  the  engine.  It  is  not  possible  to  change  the 
location  or  position  of  the  cams  on  the  shaft,  so  it  is 
clear  that  if  one  cam  is  placed  in  position  so  that  it 
opens  and  closes  its  valve  at  the  proper  time  all  the 
other  cams  will  be  set  in  the  right  place  by  the  same 
operation.  The  valve  position  and  order  of  firing 


Figure  44. — Firing  Order  of  the  Ford  Engine. 


which  determine  the  cam  settings  are  shown  in 
Figure  44. 

As  long  as  the  shape  and  size  of  the  cams  decide 
how  long  the  valves  will  stay  open,  and  the  placing  of 
the  cams  on  the  shaft  decides  how  the  inlet  valves 
work  relative  to  the  exhaust  valves,  there  is  no  use 
in  attempting  to  set  more  than  one  position  of  one 
kind  of  valve.  All  the  other  openings  and  closings 
will  then  take  care  of  themselves. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  valve  push  rods  may 
have  been  fitted  with  adjusting  screws  in  the  upper 
end.  Some  cars  are  without  adjustment,  in  which 
ease  it  is  necessary  to  fit  adjustments  in  the  repair 


136 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


shop  or  else  get  new  push  rods,  new  valves,  or  both, 
when  wear  takes  place. 

Some  engines  have  no  adjustment  on  the  push  rod, 
but  do  have  one  on  the  end  of  the  valve  stem.  This 
is  usually  taken  care  of  by  cutting  a screw  thread 
on  the  lower  end  of  the  stem  and  screwing  a nut  and 
locking  device  onto  the  end  of  the  valve  stem.  This 
serves  the  same  purpose  as  the  push  rod  adjustment. 

There  must  always  be  a small  space  between  the 
lower  end  of  the  valve  stem  and  the  upper  end  of 
the  push  rod.  This  space  is  left  so  that  when  the 
valve  heats  up  and  the  stem  expands  the  valve  will 
still  be  able  to  close.  If  the  end  of  the  stem  touched 
the  end  of  the  push  rod  with  the  engine  cold,  the 
valve  would  be  held  off  its  seat  when  the  stem  heated 
and  got  longer.  This  space  should  be  equal  to  the 
thickness  of  a thin  calling  or  business  card.  The  less 
space  at  this  point  the  quieter  the  engine  will  run. 

The  following  rules  should  be  noted.  The  truth 
of  these  statements  will  be  seen  if  you  consider  the 
subject  carefully.  Lengthening  the  push  rod  adjust- 
ment by  bringing  the  end  of  the  valve  stem  and  the 
push  rod  closer  together  opens  the  valve  sooner  and 
closes  it  later,  so  that  the  valve  is  held  open  longer. 

Shortening  the  push  rod  adjustment  by  moving  the 
end  of  the  valve  stem  and  the  push  rod  farther  apart 
opens  the  valve  later  and  closes  it  earlier  so  that  the 
valve  is  not  held  open  so  long. 

"Wlien  the  ear  leaves  the  factory  the  valves  are  accu- 
rately timed.  The  necessity  for  retiming  seldom  oc- 
curs unless  the  camshaft  or  timing  gears  should  be 
removed  in  overhauling  the  engine.  If  the  camshaft 
is  removed  for  any  reason  care  must  be  taken  to  re- 
place it  so  that  the  tooth  of  the  small  timing  gear 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


1ST 


which  is  indicated  by  a zero  mark  on  the  gear  will 
mesh  between  the  two  teeth  of  the  large  timing  gear 
at  the  zero  mark. 

In  fitting  the  large  timing  gear  to  the  camshaft  it 
is  important  to  see  that  the  first  cam  points  in  a direc- 
tion opposite  to  the  zero  mark  as  shown  in  Figure  45. 
The  timing  gears  being  properly  set,  the  exhaust  valve 


VALVE 


PUSH  ROD 


CAM  SHAFT 


large  TIME  GEAR 


SMAU  TIME  GEAR 


PISTON 


CONNECTING  ROD 

SET  O 

MARKS 

TOGETHER 


crank  SHAFT 


Figure  45. — Setting  the  Timing  Gears. 


on  number  one  cylinder  is  open  and  the  intake  valve 
closed. 

The  operation  of  the  opening  and  closing  of  the 
valves  is  as  follows : The  exhaust  valve  opens  when 
the  piston  reaches  within  -3^  of  an  inch  of  bottom 
center,  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  piston  head 
to  the  top  of  the  cylinder  casting  measuring  3%  inches. 

The  exhaust  valve  will  close  on  top  center,  the  piston 
being  -f-Q  of  an  inch  above  the  edge  of  the  cylinder 
casting.  The  intake  valve  opens  of  an  inch  after 


138 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


top  center  and  closes  y'V  of  an  incli  after  bottom  cen- 
ter, the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  piston  to  the  top 
of  the  cylinder  easting  measuring  3 Vs  inches. 

The  clearance  between  the  push  rod  and  valve  stem, 
as  shown  in  Figure  46,  should  never  be  greater  than 
1/32  of  an  inch  nor  less  than  1/64  of  an  inch.  The 
correct  clearance  is  naturally  half  way  between  these 
two  measurements.  The  gap  should  be  measured  when 
the  push  rod  is  on  the  heel  of  the  cam. 


Figure  46. — Operation  of  Cam  and  Valve  Push  Rod. 


Valve  Grinding. — The  valves  seldom  get  out  of  or- 
der, but  they  do  get  dirty  as  a result  of  carbon  collect- 
ing on  the  valve  seats.  These  carbon  deposits,  by  pre- 
venting proper  closing  of  the  valves,  permit  the  gases 
under  compression  to  escape,  resulting  in  loss  of  power 
and  uneven  running  of  the  engine.  If,  when  cranking 
the  engine  slowly,  there  is  a lack  of  resistance  in  one 
or  more  cylinders,  it  is  probable  that  the  valves  need 
regrinding.  As  the  power  of  the  engine  depends 
largely  upon  the.  proper  seating  of  the  valves  it  is 
necessary  that  they  be  ground  occasionally. 

To  remove  the  valves  for  grinding,  first  drain  the 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


139 


radiator ; second,  remove  the  cylinder  head ; third,  re- 
move the  two  valve  covers  on  the  right  hand  side  of 
the  engine;  fourth,  raise  the  valve  spring  with  a 
spring  lift  tool,  as  shown  in  Figure  47,  and  pull  out  the 
little  pin  under  the  washer.  The  valve  may  then  he 
lifted  out  and  is  ready  for  grinding. 

For  this  work  use  a good  grinding  paste  of  ground 
glass,  fine  emery  or  carborundum  and  oil,  any  of 


Figure  47. — Using  the  Valve  Stem  Lifter. 


which  are  procurable  from  auto  supply  houses.  A 
convenient  way  is  to  put  a small  amount  in  a suitable 
dish,  adding  a spoonful  or  two  of  kerosene  and  a few 
drops  of  lubricating  oil  to  make  a thin  paste. 

Place  the  mixture  sparingly  on  the  bevel  face  of 
the  valve.  Put  the  valve  in  position  on  the  valve 
seat  and  rotate  it  back  and  forth  (about  a quarter 
turn)  with  a tool,  as  shown  in  Figure  48.  Then  lift 
the  valve  slightly  from  the  seat,  change  its  position 


140 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


and  continue  the  rotation.  Repeat  this  operation  until 
the  bearing  surface  is  smooth  and  bright  after  being 
washed  off  with  gasoline  or  kerosene. 

The  valve  should  not  be  turned  through  a complete 
revolution,  as  this  is  apt  to  cause  scratches  running 


around  the  entire  circumference  of  the  valve  and  seat. 
When  grinding  is  completed  the  valve  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  cylinder,  thoroughly  washed  with 
kerosene,  and  the  valve  seat  wiped  out  thoroughly. 
Extreme  care  should  be  taken  that  no  abrasive  sub- 
stance gets  into  the  cylinders  or  valve  guides.  This 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


141 


can  be  avoided  if  the  grinding  paste  is  applied  spar- 
ingly to  the  bevel  face  of  the  valve. 

If  the  valve  seat  is  badly  worn  or  seamed,  it  is  best 
to  have  it  reseated  with  a valve  seating  tool.  This 
operation  requires  considerable  skill,  and  perhaps 
had  better  be  done  by  an  expert  mechanic.  Care 
should  be  exercised  against  making  too  deep  a cut, 
necessitating  the  retiming  of  the  valve. 

When  the  valves,  or  push  rods,  become  worn,  so  as 
to  leave  too  much  play  between  them,  and  thus  reduce 
the  lift  of  the  valves  and  power  of  the  engine,  it  is 
best  to  replace  the  push  rods  with  new  ones.  If  the 
clearance  is  too  great,  the  valve  will  open  late  and 
close  early,  resulting  in  uneven  running  of  the  engine. 
If  the  clearance  is  less  than  1/64  of  an  inch  there  is 
danger  of  the  valve  remaining  partly  open  all  the 
time.  If  replacing  the  push  rod  does  not  give  the 
proper  clearance,  the  valve  also  should  be  replaced. 
Drawing  out  the  valve  stem  is  not  recommended  as 
the  operatioli  requires  experience,  and  the  price  of  the 
new  part  does  not  warrant  the  time  and  expense  neces- 
sary to  do  the  work  properly. 

When  the  valves  fail  to  seat  properly  there  is  a 
possibility  that  the  springs  may  be  weak  or  broken. 
A weak  inlet  spring  would  probably  not  affect  the  run- 
ning of  the  engine,  but  weakness  in  the  exhaust  valve 
spring  causes  a very  uneven  action,  the  cause  of  which 
is  difficult  to  locate.  The  symptoms  are  a lag  in  the 
engine,  due  to  the  exhaust  valve  not  closing  instan- 
taneously, and  as  a result  a certain  percentage  of  the 
charge  under  compression  escapes,  greatly  diminishing 
the  force  of  the  explosion.  Weakness  in  a valve  spring 
can  usually  be  detected  by  the  following  method ; 
Eemove  the  plate  which  encloses  the  valve  stems  at 


142 


FOED  MOTOR  CAR 


the  side  of  the  cylinder  and  insert  a screwdriver  be- 
tween the  coils  of  the  spring  while  the  engine  is  run- 
ning. If  the  extra  tension  thus  produced  causes  the 
engine  to  pick  up  speed,  the  spring  is  obviously  weak 
and  should  be  replaced  with  a new  one. 

BEARINGS 

A plain  bearing  is  made  from  metal  which  has  cer- 
tain qualities  that  prevent  excessive  friction  as  the 
shaft  turns  inside  of  the  bearing.  The  bearing  proper 
is  in  the  form  of  a hollow  tube  that  surrounds  the  part 
of  the  shaft  to  be  supported,  and  is  itself  held  in  some 
form  of  holder  or  housing  supported  by  the  solid 
framework  of  the  engine. 

Plain  bearings  may  be  made  in  one  piece,  or  they 
may  be  divided  into  two  parts  by  cutting  lengthwise 
of  the  tube,  leaving  an  upper  and  lower  half.  The 
design  of  the  bearing,  whether  in  one  or  two  pieces, 
depends  on  whether  or  not  it  can  be  put  on  over  the 
end  of  the  shaft  or  must  be  placed  at  some  point  along 
the  shaft  without  sliding  it  into  position. 

Various  kinds  of  metal  may  be  used  for  plain  bear- 
ings, the  commonest  being  that  known  as  white  metal. 
White  metal  bearings  cannot  be  successfully  made  in 
the  ordinary  shop,  but  are  secured  from  bearing 
makers.  Babbitt  bearings  are  used  where  the  speed 
is  low,  or  the  load  comparatively^  light.  Babbitt  bear- 
ings may  be  poured  or  made  by  melting  the  babbitt 
metal  and  casting  it  into  a mould  made  around  the 
shaft  to  be  supported.  Brass  and  bronze  bearings  are 
used  for  hea\^  loads,  and  are  made  by  boring  the  ex- 
cess metal  from  solid  or  hollow  bars  of  bearing  metal. 

Plain  bearings  of  any  material  require  ample  and 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


143 


continuous  supplies  of  oil  while  in  use.  Inasmuch  as 
the  bearing  makes  a close  fit  around  its  shaft  it  is  not 
possible  to  introduce  enough  oil  through  the  ends  of 
the  bearing  to  properly  lubricate  the  central  part. 
To  secure  oil  at  these  central  parts  small  holes  are 
drilled  through  the  bearing  and  holder  which  lead 
right  in  to  the  shaft.  Oil  is  sent  into  these  holes  by 
V^arious  means  so  that  a supply  is  always  present 
Under  running  conditions. 

To  allow  this  oil  to  spread  over  the  inside  surface 
of  the  bearing,  oil  grooves  are  cut  into  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  bearing  metal  so  that  they  lead  from  the 
oil  hole  at  the  center  to  various  parts  of  the  surface, 
and  allow  the  oil  a free  passage  to  the  points  of  fric- 
tion. 

While  all  plain  bearings  require  more  lubrication 
than  either  ball  or  roller  types,  some  materials  require 
more  than  others  even  in  plain  bearings.  Babbitt  re- 
quires less  than  any  of  the  other  metals,  having 
greater  antifriction  properties  in  itself.  White  metal, 
white  brass  and  white  bronze  also  require  compara- 
tively little  oil.  Brass  and  bronze  bearings  require 
more  lubrication  than  any  of  the  foregoing  materials, 
and  this  is  partly  secured  by  having  a greater  number 
of  oil  grooves  leading  away  from  the  center  hole. 

Solid  bearings  are  made  of  such  an  outside  diame- 
ter that  they  may  be  forced  or  pressed  into  their 
holder.  The  holder  in  this  case  is  a part  of  the  engine, 
the  upper  end  of  the  connecting  rod,  or  some  other 
one  of  the  stationary  parts  of  the  engine.  After  being 
pressed  into  position  the  bearing  is  held  from  endwise 
movement,  and  from  turning  around  in  the  holder  by 
set  screws  which  pass  through  the  holder  and  into  the 
metal  of  the  bearing,  by  retaining  nuts,  by  small  pro- 


144 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


jeeting  lugs  on  the  bearing,  or  by  some  other  easily 
recognized  method  of  holding. 

Care  must  be  used  to  see  that  the  oil  hole  in  the 
bearing  itself,  and  the  oil  hole  through  the  holding  part 
are  in  line  so  that  the  lubricant  has  a free  passage  to 
the  surface  of  the  shaft. 

A majority  of  plain  bearings  are  split  into  halves 
and  are  carried  in  holders  which  are  also  made  in 
halves.  One-half  of  the  holder  is  stationary,  or  is 
fastened  to  some  principal  part  of  the  engine,  the 
other  half  is  removable  and  is  called  the  bearing  cap. 
The  cap  is  held  on  the  stationary  part  by  bolts  on  each 
side  of  the  cap. 

Bearing  Adjustment. — It  is  necessary  that  a bear- 
ing make  an  almost  perfect  fit  around  its  shaft.  The 
shaft  itself  must  be  perfectly  round  and  of  the  same 
diameter  at  all  points  along  the  length  of  the  bearing. 
The  bearing  should  fit  closely  enough  so  that  there  is 
no  noticeable  play  when  moved  by  hand  and  still  be 
free  enough  to  allow  the  shaft  to  turn  without  undue 
resistance  from  the  bearing  surface.  It  wiU  be  real- 
ized that  this  requires  very  careful  and  accurate 
fitting. 

When  a solid  plain  bearing  becomes  loose  on  the 
shaft  it  cannot  be  refitted  satisfactorily  and  should  be 
replaced  with  a new  one.  Several  makeshifts  may  be 
used  when  it  is  impossible  or  undesirable  to  replace 
the  bearing.  The  best  of  these  methods  consists  of 
turning  out  the  inside  of  the  bearing  on  a lathe  until 
it  clears  the  shaft  by  about  iV  of  sn  inch  all  around. 
This  space  is  then  poured  full  of  babbitt  which  forms 
a new  lining. 

Another  method  is  as  follows:  Secure  a piece  of 
thin  brass,  called  shim  stock,  which  is  of  suflSeient 


POW^iR  PRANT  REPAIR 


145 


thickness  to  fill  the  space  between  the  bearing  surface 
and  the  shaft.  This  shim  stock  may  be  secured  in 
thicknesses  varying  by  M.000  of  an  inch.  With  a hack- 
saw blade  cut  a groove  lengthwise  of  the  bearing  and 
in  the  inner  surface  so  that  it  forms  a slot  from  end 
to  end  of  the  bearing.  Place  the  shim  stock  around 
the  shaft  so  that  the  ends  of  the  brass  may  be  bent  to 
catch  in  the  slot  cut  by  the  hack-saw  blade.  This  will 
prevent  the  thin  lining  from  turning  with  the  shaft. 

Still  another  way  consists  of  cutting  completely 
through  one  side  of  the  bearing  and  lengthwise  of  it 
so  that  a sufficient  quantity  of  metal  is  removed  to 
allow  the  parts  of  the  bearing  to  be  squeezed  together 
just  as  any  ring  may  be  made  smaller  when  part  of  it 
has  been  removed.  It  will  then  be  necessary  to  fit 
wedges  between  the  bearing  and  holder  to  keep  the 
bearing  at  the  desired  size  or  else  to  fit  clamps  which 
may  be  tightened  as  desired.  This  method  has  been 
used  for  taking  up  the  play  in  the  upper  connecting 
rod  which  fits  over  the  wrist  pin. 

Split  bearings  are  usually  provided  with  small 
pieces  of  rather  thin  metal  which  hold  the  halves  of 
the  bearing  apart.  These  pieces  are  called  shims. 
When  excessive  looseness  develops  in  the  bearing  one 
or  more  of  these  pieces  may  be  removed  from  between 
the  halves  of  the  bearing  and  with  the  halves  closer 
together  a large  part  of  the  play  is  removed. 

The  bearing  cap  should  be  removed  and  the  thin- 
nest shim  removed  from  each  side.  The  cap  is  then 
replaced  and  the  shaft  turned  in  the  bearing.  If  too 
tight  to  turn  freely,  one  of  the  shims  which  was  re- 
moved, or  another  shim  thinner  than  those  removed 
should  be  replaced  and  another  trial  made.  If,  with 
one  shim  removed  from  each  side,  the  play  is  still  too’ 


14G 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


great  the  cap  is  again  removed  and  another  pair  of 
shims  removed.  Shims  should  be  removed  or  replaced, 
always  keeping  approximately  the  same  thickness  on 
each  side  of  the  cap,  until  the  play  has  been  removed 
without  preventing  free  turning. 

It  is  important  that  the  shims  extend  from  the 
surface  of  the  shaft  clear  to  the  outer  edges  of  the 
cap  and  holder  and  that  they  entirely  cover  the  edges 
of  the  bearing  in  the  cap  and  also  the  cap  itself.  The 
"shim  must  entirely  fill  the  space  between  the  halves 
of  the  bearing  of  the  cap  and  of  the  stationary  part 
of  the  holder. 

A laminated  shim  is  formed  of  a munber  of  very 
thin  shims  of  the  same  thickness  and  size  laid  one 
on  top  of  another  and  the  whole  pile  fastened  together 
by  solder  between  the  layers.  To  reduce  the  thick- 
ness of  a laminated  shim  it  is  only  necessary  to  catch 
the  edge  of  one  layer  with  the  blade  of  a knife  and 
peel  it  off. 

After  a bearing  is  fitted  it  should  be  tested  as  fol- 
lows : Remove  the  cap  and  clean  the  inner  surface  of 
the  bearing  and  the  surface  of  the  shaft  with  gasoline 
or  kerosene.  Then  secure  a tube  of  Prussian  blue, 
which  is  a kind  of  ink,  and  with  the  tip  of  the  finger 
smear  the  blue  over  the  surface  of  the  shaft  only.  As 
much  as  can  be  picked  up  on  the  tip  of  a small  knife 
blade  is  enough  for  one  application.  "With  the  blue 
evenly  distributed,  replace  the  bearing  and  tighten 
the  bolts  and  nuts. 

Turn  the  shaft  or  bearing  once  or  twice  around  and 
again  remove  the  bearing.  "Wlierever  the  bearing 
touched  the  shaft  will  be  indicated  by  a blue  coating 
on  the  bearing  surface.  TTith  a bearing  adjusted  by 
removal  of  shims  it  will  be  found  that  the  bottom  and 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


147 


top  of  the  bearing  will  touch  the  shaft  but  that  the 
parts  of  the  bearing  nearer  the  joint  between  the  two 
halves  do  not  touch.  This  fault  cannot  be  overcome 
except  by  the  process  of  scraping  to  a true  fit. 

Should  the  connecting  rod  bearing  become  worn  or 
burned  out  through  lack  of  oil,  a knocking  in  the 
engine  will  result,  in  which  case  the  entire  connect- 
ing rod  may  be  replaced.  To  make  this  replacement, 
first  drain  the  oil  from  the  crankcase;  second,  take 
off  the  cylinder  head;  third,  remove  the  detachable 
plate  on  the  bottom  of  the  crankcase;  fourth,  discon- 
nect the  connecting  rod  from  the  crankshaft,  and 
fifth,  take  the  piston  and  rod  out  through  the  top  of 
t’ie  cylinder. 

Connecting  rod  bearings  may  be  adjusted  without 
taking  out  the  engine  by  the  following  method : First, 
drain  off  the  oil ; second,  remove  the  plate  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  crankcase  which  exposes  the  connecting 
rods;  third,  take  off  the  first  connecting  rod  cap  and 
draw-file  the  ends  a very  little  at  a time;  fourth, 
replace  the  cap,  being  careful  to  see  that  the  punch 
marks  correspond  and  tighten  the  bolts  until  the  bear- 
ing fits  the  shaft  snugly;  fifth,  test  the  tightness  of 
the  bearing  by  cranking  the  engine;  sixth,  loosen  the 
bearing  and  proceed  to  fit  the  other  bearings  in  the 
same  manner;  seventh,  after  each  bearing  has  been 
properly  fitted  and  tested  tighten  the  cap  bolts  and 
the  work  is  finished. 

Eemember  that  there  is  a possibility  of  getting  the 
bearings  too  tight,  and  under  such  conditions  the 
babbitt  is  apt  to  cut  out  quickly  unless  precaution  is 
taken  to  run  the  engine  slowly  at  the  start.  It  is  a 
good  plan  after  adjusting  the  bearings  to  jack  up  the 
rear  wheels  and  let  the  engine  run  slowly  for  about 


148 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


two  hours,  keeping  it  well  supplied  with  water  and 
oil. 

Worn  connecting  rods  may  now  be  returned,  pre- 
paid, to  the  nearest  Ford  agent  or  branch  house  for 
exchange  at  a price  of  seventy-five  cents  each  to  cover 
the  cost  of  rebabbitting.  It  is  not  advisable  for  an 
owner  or  repair  shop  to  attempt  the  rebabbitting  of 
connecting  rods  or  main  bearings,  for  without  a spe- 
cial jig  in  which  to  form  the  bearings  satisfactory 
results  will  probably  not  be  obtained.  The  constant 
tapping  of  a loose  connecting  rod  on  the  crankshaft 
will  eventually  produce  crystallization  of  the  steel, 
resulting  in  a broken  crankshaft  and  possible  damage 
to  other  parts  of  the  engine. 

Should  the  stationary  bearings  in  which  the  crank- 
shaft revolves  become  worn  it  will  become  e\ddenced 
by  a pounding  in  the  engine.  In  replacing  or  adjust- 
ing these  bearings  proceed  as  follows: 

First,  with  the  engine  out  of  the  car,  remove  the 
crankcase,  the  transmission  cover,  the  cylinder  head, 
the  pistons,  the  connecting  rods,  the  transmission  and 
the  magneto  coils.  Take  off  the  three  babbitted  caps 
and  clean  the  bearing  surfaces  with  gasoline.  Apply 
Prussian  blue  or  red  lead  to  the  crankshaft  bearing 
surfaces,  which  will  enable  you  to  determine  whether 
a perfect  bearing  surface  is  obtained  in  the  same  way 
as  described  for  fitting  the  connecting  rods. 

Second,  place  the  rear  cap  in  position  and  tighten 
it  up  as  much  as  possible  without  stripping  the  bolt 
threads.  When  the  bearing  has  been  properly  fitted  the 
crankshaft  will  permit  moving  it  with  one  hand.  If 
the  crankshaft  cannot  be  turned  with  one  hand  the 
contact  between  the  bearing  surfaces  is  evidently  too 
close,  and  the  cap  requires  shimming  up,  one  or  two 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


149 


brass  liners  usually  being  sufficient.  In  case  tlie 
crankshaft  moves  too  easily  with  one  hand,  the  shims 
should  be  removed  and  the  steel  surface  of  the  cap 
filed  off,  permitting  it  to  set  closer  around  the  bearing. 

After  removing  the  cap,  observe  whether  the  blue 
or  red  spottings  indicate  a full  bearing  for  the  length 
of  the  cap.  If  spottings  do  not  show  a true  bearing, 
the  babbitt  should  be  scraped  and  the  cap  refitted 
until  the  proper  results  are  obtained. 

Fourth,  lay  the  rear  cap  aside  and  proceed  to 
adjust  the  center  bearing  in  the  same  manner.  Re- 
peat the  operation  with  the  front  bearing  while  the 
other  two  bearings  are  laid  aside. 

Fifth,  when  the  proper  adjustment  of  each  bearing 
has  been  obtained,  clean  the  babbitt  surface  carefully 
and  place  a little  lubricating  oil  on  the  bearings,  also 
on  the  crankshaft;  then  draw  the  caps  up  as  closely 
as  possible  with  the  necessary  shims  in  place.  Do  not 
be  afraid  of  getting  the  cap  bolts  too  tight,  as  the 
shim  under' the  cap  and  the  oil  between  the  bearing 
surfaces  will  prevent  the  metal  being  drawn  into  too 
close  contact.  If  oil  is  not  put  on  the  bearing  surface, 
the  babbitt  is  apt  to  cut  out  when  the  engine  is  started 
and  before  the  oil  in  the  crankcase  can  get  into  the 
bearing.  • In  replacing  the  crankcase  and  transmission 
cover  on  the  engine  it  is  advisable  to  use  a new  set 
of  felt  gaskets  to  prevent  oil  leaks. 

Scraping  Bearings. — This  is  done  with  a tool  called 
a bearing  scraper  which  is  made  with  a blade  having 
two  or  three  sharp  corners  or  edges  and  held  in  a wood 
handle.  The  blade  may  be  three-cornered  or  flat. 

The  bearing,  with  the  Prussian  blue  or  red  lead  still 
on  the  surface,  is  held  in  a vise  by  clamping  the  jaws 
firmly  but  not  tight  enough  to  bend  the  bearing.  The 


150 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


jaws  should  clamp  the  ends  of  the  bearing  and  not 
the  sides.  The  handle  of  the  scraper  is  grasped  with 
the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  and  the  blade  laid  on 
the  surface  of  the  bearing  so  that  two  edges  touch 
the  bearing  surface.  By  pressing  lightly  with  the 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  on  top  of  the  blade  where  it 
rests  in  the  bearing,  while  the  blade  is  moved  by  the 
right  hand,  a very  little  metal  may  be  removed  from 
the  surface  at  the  points  w’here  the  blue  shows.  After 
the  blue  has  been  removed  the  bearing  is  replaced 
on  the  shaft,  the  shaft  having  been  given  another 
coat  of  the  stain,  and  with  the  bolts  tightened,  the 
shaft  or  bearing  is  again  turned. 

The  bearing  is  again  removed  and  the  blue  carefully 
scraped  away,  this  process  being  repeated  until  at 
least  two-thirds  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  bearing 
is  covered  with  the  blue  when  it  is  removed  from  the 
shaft.  This  must  be  done  with  both  halves  of  the  bear- 
ing. After  the  fitting  is  completed  the  remainder  of 
the  blue  is  removed  from  the  shaft  and  bearing  with 
gasoline.  The  surfaces  of  both  bearing  and  shaft  are 
then  covered  with  cylinder  oil  and  the  bearing  is 
replaced. 

The  surface  of  the  shaft  where  it  runs  through  the 
bearing  must  be  perfectly  smooth  and  free  from 
ridges  and  rings.  If  it  is  not  in  this  condition,  the 
shaft  wiU  have  to  be  turned  smooth  in  a lathe  or  else 
it  must  be  lapped.  A bearing  should  never  be 
replaced  on  its  shaft  until  all  rubbing  surfaces 
have  been  vdped  clean  and  covered  with  lubricating 
oil. 

A connecting  rod  bearing  is  properly  tightened 
when  the  connecting  rod  and  piston  will  remain  in  an 
upright  position  when  placed  there  but  will  fall  and 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


151 


turn  the  bearing  on  the  shaft  when  once  started  by 
pushing  the  piston  to  one  side  or  the  other. 

A crankshaft  bearing  is  properly  tightened  when 
the  shaft  shows  no  play  when  pried  with  a bar  but 
may  still  be  whirled  part  of  a turn  by  hand. 

It  is  very  essential  that  all  bolts  and  nuts  be  securely 
tightened  and  locked  in  place  with  a wire  or  cotter 
pin  passing  through  the  nut  and  bolt.  Lock  washers 
should  not  be  depended  upon  at  any  point  inside  of 
the  engine. 

ENGINE  AUXILIARIES 

Ignition  Adjustments. — The  present  style  of  coil 
unit  is  properly  adjusted  when  it  leaves  the  factory 
and  this  adjustment  should  not  be  disturbed  unless 
to  install  new  points  or  to  reduce  the  gap  between 
the  points  which  may  have  increased  from  wear. 
When  adjustments  are  necessary  they  should,  when- 
ever possible,  be  made  by  a service  station  having 
special  equipment  for  testing  and  adjusting  units.  If 
the  points  are  pitted  they  should  be  filed  flat  with  a 
fine  double-faced  file  and  the  adjusting  thumb  nut 
turned  down  so  that  with  the  spring  held  down  the 
gap  between  the  points  will  be  a trifle  less  than  of 
an  inch.  Then  set  the  lock  nut  so  that  the  adjustment 
can  not  be  disturbed.  Do  not  bend  or  hammer  on  the 
vibrators,  as  this  would  affect  the  operation  of  the 
cushion  spring  of  the  vibrator  bridge  and  reduce  the 
efficiency  of  the  unit. 

In  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  the  commu- 
tator take  out  the  cotter  pin  from  the  spark  rod  and 
detach  the  rod  from  the  commutator.  Loosen  the  cap 
screw  which  goes  through  the  breather  pipe  on  the 
top  of  timing  gear  cover.  This  will  release  the  spring 


152 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


which  holds  the  commutator  ease  in  place  and  this 
part  can  be  readily  removed.  Then  unscrew  the  lock 
nut;  withdraw  the  steel  roller  cap  and  drive  out  the 


Figure  49. — Parts  of  the  Commutator. 


retaining  pin.  The  roller  can  then  lie  removed  from 
the  camshaft.  These  parts  are  shown  in  Figure  49. 

In  replacing  the  roller,  care  must  be  exercised  to 
see  that  it  is  reinstalled  so  that  the  exhaust  valve  on 
the  first  cylinder  is  closed  when  the  roUer  points 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


153 


upward.  This  may  be  ascertained  by  removing  the 
valve  cover  and  observing  the  operation  of  number  one 
valve. 

It  is  necessary  to  take  the  power  plant  out  of  the 
car  in  order  to  remove  the  magneto.  Then  remove  the 
crankcase  and  transmission  cover  and  take  out  the 
four  cap  screws  that  bold  the  flywheel  to  the  crank- 
shaft. You  will  then  have  access  to  the  magnets  and 
entire  magneto  mechanism.  In  taking  out  these  parts, 
or  any  other  parts  of  the  car,  the  utmost  care  should 
be  taken  to  make  sure  that  the  parts  are  so  marked 
that  they  may  be  replaced  properly. 

The  Ford  magneto  is  made  with  permanent  mag- 
nets and  there  is  very  little  likelihood  of  their  losing 
their  strength  unless  acted  upon  by  some  outside  force 
such  as  the  attachment  of  a storage  battery  to  the 
magneto  terminal  which  will  demagnetize  the  magnets. 
If  anything  like  this  happens  it  is  not  advisable  to  try 
to  recharge  them,  but  rather  install  a complete  set 
of  new  magnets.  The  new  magnets  will  be  sent  from 
the  nearest  agent  or  branch  house,  and  will  be  placed 
on  a board  in  identically  the  same  manner  as  they 
should  be  when  installed  on  the  flywheel,  which  is 
shown  in  Figure  50.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in 
assembling  the  magnets  and  lining  up  the  magneto 
so  that  the  faces  of  the  magnets  are  separated  from 
the  surfaces  of  the  coil  spools  just  ^ of  an  inch.  To 
take  out  the  old  magnets,  simply  remove  the  cap  screw 
which  holds  each  in  place.  The  magneto  is  often 
blamed  when  the  trouble  is  a weak  current  caused  by 
foreign  matter  accumulating  under  the  contact  spring 
which  is  held  in  place  by  the  binding  post  on  top  of 
the  crankcase  cover.  Eemove  the  three  screws  which 
hold  the  binding  post  in  place,  then  remove  the  bind- 


154 


FORD  MOTOR  CAPw 


ing  post  and  spring  and  replace  after  tlie  foreign 
substance  has  been  removed. 

Radiator  Repair. — A small  leak  may  be  temporarily 
repaired  by  applying  brown  soap  or  white  lead,  but 
the  repair  should  be  made  permanent  with  solder  as 
soon  as  possible.  A jammed  radiator  tube  is  a more 
serious  affair.  While  the  stopping  of  one  tube  does 
not  seriously  interfere  with  the  circulation,  it  is  bound 


Figure  50. — Magneto  Magnets  and  Magnet  Support. 


to  cause  trouble  sooner  or  later  and  the  tube  will 
freeze  in  cold  weather.  Cut  the  tube  an  inch  above 
and  below  the  jam  and  insert  a new  piece,  soldering 
the  connections.  If  the  entire  radiator  is  badly 
jammed  or  broken  it  would  probably  be  advisable  to 
install  a new  one. 

A rather  bad  leak  may  be  stopped  by  poui’ing  about 
a half  cup  full  of  ground  flax  seed  meal  into  the 
radiator  through  the  filler  opening.  This  meal  will 
mix  with  the  water  and  when  it  comes  to  the  opening 
through  which  the  leak  occurs  it  will  pass  into  this 
space  and  expand  enough  to  fill  the  hole  and  prevent 
any  further  flow.  This  method  can  only  be  recom- 


POWER  PLANT  REPAIR 


155 


mended  as  an  emergency  repair  because  the  effect  is 
only  temporary. 

Carburetor  Adjustment. — The  usual  method  of  reg- 
ulating the  carburetor  is  to  start  the  engine,  advanc- 
ing the  throttle  lever  to  about  the  sixth  notch  and  with 
the  spark  retarded  to  about  the  fourth  notch.  The 
flow  of  gasoline  should  now  be  cut  down  by  screwing 
the  needle  valve  down  or  to  the  right  until  the  engine 
begins  to  misfire ; then  gradually  increase  the  gasoline 
feed  by  opening  the  needle  valve  until  the  engine 
picks  up  and  reaches  its  highest  speed  and  until  no 
trace  of  black  smoke  comes  from  the  exhaust.  Having 
determined  the  point  where  the  engine  runs  at  its 
maximum  speed,  the  needle  valve  binding  screw 
should  be  tightened  to  prevent  the  adjustment  being 
disturbed.  For  average  running  a lean  mixture  will 
give  better  results  than  a rich  one. 

Care  of  Muffler. — The  muffler  should  be  cleaned 
occasionally.  Remove  it  and  take  off  the  nuts  on  the 
ends  of  rods  which  hold  it  together  and  disassemble. 
In  reassembling  the  muffler  be  careful  not  to  get  the 
holes  in  two  adjoining  inner  shells  on  the  same  side 
or  end. 

To  disconnect  the  muffler  it  is  not  necessary  to  dis- 
connect the  exhaust  pipe  from  the  engine,  although 
it  is  a good  plan  and  a simple  matter,  necessitating 
only  unscrewing  the  union.  To  disconnect  the  muffler 
from  the  frame,  unscrew  the  union  at  the  forward  end 
of  the  pipe,  drop  it  doivn  so  it  will  clear  the  frame 
and  slip  it  back  off  the  tube.  If  the  muffler  becomes 
materially  damaged  it  will  probably  be  cheaper  to 
replace  it  with  a new  one  than  to  attempt  to  repair  it. 


CHAPTER  VI 


TRANSMISSION  AND  RUNNING  GEAR 
ADJUSTMENTS 

The  parts  of  the  Ford  ear  which  are  included  in  the 
transmission  system  and  the  running  gear  are  pro- 
vided with  such  liberal  adjustments  that  it  should  not 
be  necessary  to  make  any  repairs  except  in  case  of 
accident.  The  best  methods  of  keeping  these  parts 
of  the  car  in  perfect  running  order  and  of  assembling 
and  disassembling  them  are  described  in  the  following 
paragraphs. 

T ra^ismission  and  Clutch. — In  order  to  remove  the 
transmission  from  the  engine,  it  is  first  necessarj’  to 
take  the  power  plant  out  of  the  car.  Then  remove  the 
crankcase  and  the  transmission  cover.  Take  out  the 
four  screws  that  hold  the  fiywheel  to  the  rear  end  of 
the  crankshaft  and  the  entire  transmission  may  be 
easily  removed  from  the  cylinder  easting. 

Figure  51  shows  the  transmission  parts  in  their 
relative  positions  and  grouped  for  the  different  opera- 
tions of  assembling.  The  first  operation  is  to  place  the 
brake  drum  on  a table  or  bench  with  the  hub  in  a ver- 
tical position.  Place  the  slow  speed  plate  over  the 
hub  with  the  gear  uppermost.  Then  place  the  reverse 
plate  over  the  slow  speed  plate  so  that  the  reverse 
gear  surrounds  the  slow  speed  gear.  Put  the  driven 
gear  in  position  mth  the  teeth  downward  so  that  they 
will  come  next  to  the  slow  speed  gear.  Take  the  three 
triple  gears  and  mesh  them  with  the  driven  gear 
according  to  the  punch  marks  on  the  teeth,  the  reverse 

156 


Figure  61. — (Transmission  and  Clutch  Disassembled. 


158 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


gear  or  smallest  of  the  triple  gear  assembly  being 
downward.  After  making  sure  that  the  triple  gears 
are  properly  meshed,  tie  them  in  place  by  passing  a 
cord  around  the  outside  of  the  three  gears. 

Place  the  flywheel  on  the  table  or  bench  with  the 
face  downward  and  the  transmission  shaft  in  a ver- 
tical position ; then  invert  the  group  which  you  have 
assembled  over  the  transmission  shaft,  setting  it  in 
position  so  that  the  triple  gear  pins  on  the  flywheel 
will  pass  through  the  triple  gears.  This  will  bring 
the  brake  drum  on  top  and  in  a position  to  hold  the 
clutch  plates. 

The  next  step  is  to  fit  the  clutch  drum  key  in  the 
transmission  shaft.  Press  the  clutch  disc  drum  over 
the  shaft  and  put  the  set  screw  in  place  to  hold  the 
drum.  Put  the  distance  plate  over  the  clutch  drum, 
add  a small  disc,  then  a large  one,  alternating  with 
large  and  small  discs  until  the  entire  set  of  discs  is 
in  position  and  ending  up  with  a large  disc  on  top. 
If  a small  disc  is  on  top  it  is  liable  to  fall  over  the 
clutch  drum  in  changing  the  speed  from  high  to  low 
and  as  a result  the  driver  would  be  unable  to  change 
back  into  high  speed. 

Next  put  the  clutch  push  ring  over  the  clutch  drum, 
and  on  top  of  the  discs,  with  the  three  pins  projecting 
upward.  Note  that  the  remaining  parts  are  placed 
as  they  will  be  assembled.  Next  bolt  the  driving  plate 
in  position  so  that  the  adjusting  screws  of  the  clutch 
fingers  will  bear  against  the  clutch  push  ring  pins. 
Before  proceeding  farther  it  would  be  a good  plan  to 
test  the  transmission  by  moving  the  plates  with  the 
hands.  If  the  transmission  is  properly  assembled  the 
flywheel  will  revolve  freely  Avhile  holding  any  of  the 
drums  stationary. 


160 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


The  clutch  parts  may  be  assembled  on  the  driving 
plate  hub  as  follows;  Slip  the  clutch  shaft  over  the 
hub  so  that  the  small  end  rests  on  the  ends  of  the 
clutch  fingers.  Next  put  on  the  clutch  spring,  placing 
the  clutch  supports  inside  so  that  the  fiange  will  rest 
on  the  upper  coil  of  the  spring.  Next  place  the  clutch 
spring  thrust  ring  wuth  the  notched  end  down  and 
press  it  into  place,  inserting  the  pin  in  the  driving 
plate  hub  through  the  holes  in  the  side  of  the  spring 
support. 

The  easiest  method  of  compressing  the  spring  suf- 
ficiently to  insert  the  pin  is  to  loosen  the  tension  of 
the  clutch  fingers  by  means  of  the  adjusting  screws. 
"When  again  tightening  up  the  clutch  the  spring 
should  be  compressed  to  occupy  a space  of  two  or  two 
and  one-sixteenth  inches  to  insure  against  the  clutch 
slipping.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  the 
screws  in  the  fingers  are  adjusted  so  the  spring  is 
compressed  evenly  all  around.  The  transmission  and 
clutch  wdien  partly  assembled  are  shown  in  Figure  52. 

Do  not  place  any  small  tools  or  objects  over  or  in 
the  transmission  case  without  a good  wire  or  cord 
attached  to  them.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  recover 
them  without  taking  off  the  transmission  cover. 

The  method  of  making  transmission  adjustments 
may  be  undersood  from  Figure  53.  To  adjust  the 
clutch  remove  the  plate  on  the  transmission  cover 
under  the  fioor  boards  at  the  driver’s  feet.  Take  out 
the  cotter  pin  on  the  first  clutch  finger  and  give  the 
screw  from  one-half  to  one  complete  tuni  to  the  right 
w’ith  a screwdriver.  Do  the  same  to  the  other  finger 
set  screws.  But  be  sure  to  give  each  screw  the  same 
number  of  turns  or  parts  of  a turn  and  do  not  forget 
to  replace  the  cotter  pin.  After  a considerable  period 


TRANSMISSION  AND  RUNNING  GEAR 


161 


of  service  the  wear  in  the  clutch  may  be  taken  up  by 
installing  an  additional  pair  of  clutch  discs  rather 
than  by  turning  the  adjusting  screws  in  too  far. 

The  slow  speed  band  may  be  tightened  by  loosening 
the  lock  nut  on  the  right  side  of  the  transmission 


Figure  53. — Transmission  Band  Adjustments. 


cover  and  turning  the  adjusting  screw  to  the  right. 
To  tighten  the  brake  band  and  reverse  band  remove 
the  transmission  case  cover  plate  and  turn  the  adjust- 
ing nuts  on  the  shafts  to  the  right.  See  that  the  bands 
do  not  drag  on  the  drums  when  disengaged  as  they 
would  exert  a braking  effect  and  tend  to  overheat  the 
engine.  The  foot  brake  should,  however,  be  adjusted 
so  that  a sudden  pressure  will  stop  the  ear  immedi- 


1C2 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


ately  or  slide  the  rear  wheels  in  case  of  emergency. 
The  bands,  when  worn  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
will  not  take  hold  properly,  should  be  relined  so  that 
they  will  engage  smoothly  without  causing  a jerky 
movement  of  the  car. 

To  remove  the  bands,  take  off  the  plate  on  top  of  the 
transmission  cover.  Turn  the  reverse  adjustment  nut 
and  the  brake  adjustment  nut  to  the  extreme  ends  of 
the  pedal  shafts,  then  remove  the  slow  speed  adjust- 
ing screw.  Kemove  the  bolts  holding  the  transmission 
cover  to  the  crankcase  and  lift  otf  the  cover  assembly. 
Slip  the  band  nearest  the  flywheel  over  the  flrst  of  the 
triple  gears,  then  turn  the  band  around  so  that  the 
opening  is  downward.  The  band  can  now  be  removed 
by  lifting  it  upward.  The  operation  is  more  easily 
accomplished  if  the  three  sets  of  triple  gears  are  so 
placed  that  one  set  is  about  ten  degrees  to  the  right 
of  the  center  and  at  the  top.  Each  band  may  be 
removed  by  a similar  operation.  It  is  necessary  to  push 
each  band  forward  onto  the  triple  gears  as  only  at  this 
point  is  there  sufficient  clearance  in  the  ease  to  alloT' 
the  ears  of  the  transmission  bands  to  be  turned  down^ 
ward.  By  reversing  this  operation  the  bands  may 
be  installed.  After  being  placed  in  their  upright 
position  on  the  drums,  pass  a cord  around  the  ears  of 
the  three  bands,  holding  them  in  the  center  so  that 
when  putting  the  transmission  cover  in  place  no 
trouble  will  be  experienced  in  getting  the  pedal  shafts 
to  rest  in  the  notches  in  the  band  ears.  The  clutch 
release  ring  must  be  placed  in  the  rear  groove  of  the 
clutch  shaft.  With  the  cover  in  place  remove  the 
cord  which  held  the  bands  in  place  while  the  cover 
was  being  installed. 

Bear  Axle  and  Brakes. — To  remove  the  rear  axle 


TRANSMISSION  AND  RUNNING  GEAR 


1C3 


jack  the  wheels  free  of  the  floor  and  take  them  off  the 
axle.  Take  out  the  four  bolts  that  connect  the  uni- 
versal joint  cap  to  the  rear  end  of  the  transmission 
case  and  transmission  cover.  Disconnect  the  back 
radius  rods,  remove  the  nuts  which  hold  the  spring 
seats  onto  the  rear  axle  housing  flanges,  raise  the  rear 
end  of  the  frame  and  the  axle  may  be  easily  with- 
drawn. 

In  order  to  disconnect  the  universal  joint  from  the 
drive  shaft,  first  remove  the  two  plugs  from  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  ball  casting,  then  turn  the  rear 
wheel  and  drive  shaft  until  the  universal  pin  is  oppo- 
site the  hole  in  the  easting.  Now  drive  the  pin  out 
and  the  joint  may  be  pulled  or  forced  away  from  the 
shaft  and  out  of  the  housing. 

To  disassemble  the  rear  axle,  proceed  as  follows : 
With  the  universal  joints  disconnected  remove  the 
nuts  in  the  front  end  of  the  radius  rods  and  the  nuts 
on  the  studs  holding  the  drive  shaft  tube  to  the  rear 
axle  housing.  Eemove  the  bolts  which  hold  the  two 
halves  of  the  differential  housing  together.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  disassemble  the  differential  a very  slight 
mechanical  knowledge  will  permit  one  to  immediately 
discern  how  to  do  it  once  it  is  exposed  to  view.  Care 
must  be  exercised  to  get  every  pin,  bolt  and  key  back 
in  its  correct  position  when  reassembling. 

To  remove  the  small  pinion  from  the  rear  end  of 
the  drive  shaft  it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  the 
castellated  nut  and  drive  the  pinion  off.  The  end  of 
the  drive  shaft  to  which  the  pinion  is  attached  is 
tapered  to  fit  the  tapered  hole  in  the  pinion.  The 
pinion  is  pressed  onto  the  shaft  and  is  secured  by  the 
castellated  nut  and  a cotter  pin. 

The  differential  gears  are  attached  to  the  inner 


164 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


ends  of  the  rear  axle  shafts.  When  turning  a corner 
they  work  upon  the  spider  gears  so  that  the  shafts 
revolve  independently  of  each  other,  but  when  the 
car  is  moving  in  a straight  line  the  spider  gears,  the 
compensating  gears  and  the  axle  shafts  move  as  a unit. 
An  examination  of  the  rear  axle  shafts  will  show  that 
the  gears  are  keyed  on  and  held  in  position  by  a ring 
which  is  in  two  halves  and  fits  into  a groove  in  the 
rear  axle  shaft.  To  remove  the  compensating  gears 
force  them  down  on  the  shaft ; that  is,  away  from  the 
end  to  which  they  are  secured,  drive  out  the  two 
halves  of  the  ring  from  the  grooves  in  the  shaft  with 
a screwdriver  or  chisel  and  then  force  the  gears  off 
the  end  of  the  shafts. 

To  remove  the  rear  axle  shaft,  disconnect  the  rear 
axle,  then  unbolt  the  drive  shaft  assembly  where  it 
joins  the  rear  axle  housing  at  the  differential.  Dis- 
connect the  two  radius  rods  at  the  outer  ends  of  the 
housing.  Take  out  the  bolts  which  hold  the  two  halves 
of  the  rear  axle  housing  together  at  the  center.  Take 
the  inner  differential  casing  apart  and  draw  the  axle 
shaft  through  the  housing  at  the  center. 

After  replacing  the  axle  shaft  be  sure  that  the  rear 
wheels  are  firmly  wedged  on  at  the  outer  end  of  the 
axle  shaft  and  that  the  key  is  in  its  proper  position. 
When  a new  car  has  been  driven  thirty  days  or  so, 
the  hub  cap  should  be  removed  and  the  lock  nut  tight- 
ened to  overcome  any  play  that  may  have  developed. 
It  is  extremely  important  that  the  rear  wheels  be 
kept  tight,  otherwise  the  constant  rocking  back  and 
forth  against  the  keyway  may  in  time  cause  serious 
trouble. 

If  either  the  rear  axle  or  wheel  is  sprung  by  skid- 
ding against  a curb  or  by  any  other  accident,'  it  is 


TRANSMISSION  AND  RUNNING  GEAR 


165 


false  economy  to  drive  the  ear  because  tires,  gears 
and  all  other  parts  will  suffer.  If  the  axle  is  bent,  it 
can  with  proper  facilities  be  straightened,  but  it  is 
best  to  replace  it. 

The  adjustment  of  the  foot  brake  has  already  been 
explained  under  the  care  of  the  transmission  bands. 
The  rear  wheel  brakes  may  be  adjlisted  by  removing 
the  pin  and  disconnecting  the  end  of  the  pull  rod  from 
the  small  lever,  then  screwing  the  rod  end  farther 
onto  the  rod  itself. 

If  the  facing  of  the  rear  brake  shoes  is  found  to  be 
filled  with  grease  this  accumulation  may  be  removed 
by  directing  the  flame  from  an  ordinary  blow  torch 
against  the  grease  covered  parts  until  all  of  the  oil 
has  been  burned  away. 

Front  Axle  and  Steering  Gear. — To  remove  the 
front  axle  from  the  car  jack  up  the  front  of  the  car  so 
that  the  wheels  can  be  removed,  disconnect  the  steer- 
ing gear  ball  arm  from  the  spindle  connecting  rod, 
disconnect  the  radius  rod  at  the  ball  joint  and  remove 
two  cotter-pinned  bolts  from  the  spring  shackle  on 
each  side,  thus  detaching  the  front  spring. 

To  disconnect  the  radius  rod  from  the  axle,  remove 
the  cotter-pinned  nuts.  To  remove  the  radius  rod 
entirely  take  the  two  bolts  out  of  the  ball  joint  and 
remove  the  lower  half  of  the  cap. 

Should  the  axle  or  spindle  become  bent,  extreme 
care  must  be  used  to  straighten  the  parts  accurately. 
Do  not  heat  the  forgings,  as  this  will  draw  the  temper 
of  the  steel,  but  straighten  them  cold.  If  convenient 
it  would  be  better  to  return  such  parts  to  the  Ford 
factory  where  they  may  be  properly  straightened  in 
jigs  designed  for  that  purpose.  It  is  very  essential 
that  the  wheels  line  up  properly. 


166 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


Should  the  steering  gear  become  so  loose  that  a 
slight  movement  of  the  hand  wheel  does  not  produce 
immediate  results  at  the  road  wheels,  it  may  be  tight- 
ened in  the  following  manner:  Disconnect  the  two 
halves  of  the  ball  and  socket  which  surrounds  the 
ball  arm  at  the  lower  end  of  the  steering  post  and 
file  off  the  surfaces  until  they  fit  snugly  around  the 
ball.  If  the  ball  is  badly  worn  it  is  best  to  replace  it 
with  a new  one.  Also  tighten  the  ball  caps  at  the 
other  end  of  the  steering  gear  connecting  rod  in  the 
same  manner.  If  the  bolts  in  the  steering  arms 
appear  to  be  loose  the  brass  bushings  should  be  re- 
placed wdth  new  ones.  Excessive  play  in  the  front 
axle  may  be  detected  by  grasping  one  of  the  front 
wheels  by  the  spokes  and  jerking  it  back  and  forth. 
After  the  car  has  been  in  service  two  or  three  years 
excessive  play  in  the  steering  gear  may  make  neces- 
sary the  renewal  of  the  small  pinions,  as  well  as  the 
brass  internal  gear  which  is  just  underneath  the  steer- 
ing hand  wheel. 

It  is  also  advisable  to  inspect  the  front  spring  hang- 
ers occasionally  to  determine  whether  or  not  new 
bushings  are  necessary  to  overcome  the  results  of  any 
excessive  vibration. 

Springs. — It  is  very  necessary  that  the  center  of 
the  spring  be  kept  tightly  clipped  to  the  frame  be- 
cause a loose  spring  will  usually  result  in  broken 
leaves.  Near  the  outer  ends  of  the  springs  are  small 
bands  which  clasp  four  or  five  leaves  and  hold  them 
tightly  together.  These  are  called  rebound  clips  and 
are  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  leaves  from 
moving  away  from  each  other  when  the  car  body  is 
thrown  upward  by  the  recoil  of  springs  after  they 
have  been  compressed.  If  these  rebound  clips  were 


TRANSMISSION  AND  RUNNING  GEAR 


167 


not  used  the  upward  motion  of  the  car  body  would 
have  to  be  checked  by  the  long  main  leaf  alone,  but 
with  the  clips  in  place  this  load  is  put  upon  all  of  the 
leaves  which  are  thus  fastened  together  and  the  strain 
is  distributed. 

Much  may  be  done  toward  preventing  spring  break- 
age by  keeping  all  of  the  clips  tight  and  by  keeping  the 
springs  well  lubricated  so  that  there  is  no  unnecessary 
friction.  This  lubricating  may  best  be  done  by  spread- 
ing the  ends  of  the  leaves  apart,  either  with  a screw- 
driver or  with  a special  tool  made  for  the  purpose. 
While  the  leaves  are  separated  place  a small  amount 
of  graphite  and  lubricating  oil  mixture  between  them. 

Wheels  and  Bearings. — To  remove  a front  wheel 
take  off  the  hub  cap,  remove  the  cotter  pin  and  unscrew 
the  castlelatted  nut  and  spindle  washer.  The  adjust- 
able bearing  cone  can  then  be  taken  out  and  the  wheel 
removed.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  cones 
and  lock  nuts  are  replaced  on  the  same  spindle  from 
which  they  were  removed,  otherwise  there  is  a liability 
of  stripping  the  threads  which  are  left  handed  on  the 
left  spindle  and  right  handed  on  the  opposite  side. 
The  back  wheels  should  not  be  removed  unless  abso- 
lutely necessary,  but  if  this  work  is  called  for,  remove 
the  hub  cap  and  nut,  then  with  a wheel  puller  remove 
the  wheel  from  the  tapered  shaft  to  which  it  is  locked 
with  a key.  In  replacing  the  rear  wheels  be  sure  that 
the  nut  on  the  axle  shaft  is  as  tight  as  possible,  and 
that  the  cotter  pin  is  in  place.  The  hub  caps  of  the 
rear  wheels  should  be  removed  occasionally,  and  the 
lock  nuts  which  hold  the  hub  in  place  tightened  up.  If 
these  nuts  are  allowed  to  work  loose,  the  resulting  play 
on  the  hub  key  may  eventually  twist  off  the  axle  shaft. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  front  wheels  are  dished, 


168 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


that  is,  the  spokes  are  given  a slight  outward  flare  to 
better  enable  them  to  meet  side  stresses.  The  spokes  of 
the  rear  wheels  are  straight.  The  front  wheels  are  also 
placed  at  an  angle  with  the  road  so  that  the  distance 
between  the  tops  of  the  wheel  is  about  three  inches 
greater  than  between  their  bottoms.  This  is  to  give 
perfect  steering  qualities  and  to  save  wear  on  the  tires 
when  turning  corners.  The  front  wheels  should  toe 
in  at  the  front  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  and  lines 
drawn  along  the  outside  of  the  wheels  when  they  are 
in  a forward  position  should  be  nearly  parallel.  All 
wheels  should  be  kept  in  proper  alignment,  otherwise 
steering  will  be  difficult  and  tire  wear  greatly  in- 
creased. Adjustment  to  make  the  wheels  parallel  can 
be  made  by  turning  the  yoke  at  the  left  end  of  the 
spindle  connecting  rod  or  tie  rod. 

Very  little  can  be  done  toward  making  any  repairs 
on  the  ball  bearings  in  the  front  wheels  or  on  the  roller 
bearings  in  the  rear  wheels  because  it  is  less  expensive 
to  replace  these  members  when  they  are  broken  or 
worn  than  to  attempt  repairs.  In  the  case  of  the  front 
wheel  bearings  it  is  seldom  satisfactory  to  replace  one 
or  more  balls  unless  all  of  them  are  replaced,  because 
the  new  balls  will  be  larger  than  the  others  which 
have  already  received  a certain  amount  of  wear,  and 
the  new  balls  will,  therefore,  take  more  than  their 
share  of  the  load.  Shordd  either  the  cup  or  the  cone 
be  worn,  or  chipped,  on  its  wearing  surface,  it  will 
generally  be  found  that  one  or  more,  if  not  aU  of  the 
balls,  are  also  worn,  or  chipped,  and  this  condition 
may  possibly  extend  to  the  other  member  of  the  bear- 
ing if  one  is  found  damaged. 

Practically  the  same  advice  applies  to  the  rear 
wheel  roller  bearings  as  applies  to  the  front  wheel 


TRANSMISSION  AND  RUNNING  GEAR 


169 


bearings,  and  it  will  almost  always  be  better  to  replace 
the  whole  set  of  rollers  together  with  their  cage  and 
race  than  to  make  any  attempt  to  put  in  new  parts. 

Tires. — The  tires  may  be  removed,  as  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 54.  First,  jack  the  wheels  clear  of  the  road.  The 


Figure  54. — Removing  a Clincher  Tire. 


valve  cap  should  be  unscrewed,  the  lock  nut  removed 
and  the  valve  stem  pushed  into  the  tire  until  its  head 
is  flush  with  the  rim.  This  done,  loosen  up  the  bead 
of  the  easing  in  the  clinch  of  the  rim  by  working  and 
pushing  with  the  hands,  then  insert  one  of  the  tire 
irons  or  levers  under  the  bead.  The  tire  iron  should 


170 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


be  pushed  in  just  enough  to  get  a good  hold  on  the 
under  side  of  the  head,  hut  not  so  far  as  to  pinch  the 
inner  tube  between  the  rim  and  the  tool.  A second 
iron  should  be  inserted  in  the  same  fashion  some  seven 
or  eight  inches  from  the  first,  and  a third  tool  the  same 

distance  from  the  second.  As  a clincher  tire  must  be 

« 

pried  over  the  clinch  of  the  rim  three  or  four  levers  will 
come  in  handy  in  a case  of  one-man  job,  and  the  knee 
of  the  operator  can  be  used  to  good  advantage  to  hold 
down  one  lever  while  the  other  two  are  being  manipu- 
lated in  working  the  casing  clear  of  the  rim.  After 
freeing  a length  of  the  bead  from  the  clinch,  the  entire 
outer  edge  of  the  easing  may  be  readily  detached  with 
the  hands  and  the  damaged  inner  tube  can  be  removed 
and  patched  or  a spare  tube  inserted.  Always  use 
plenty  of  soapstone  or  powdered  chalk  in  replacing  an 
inner  tube. 

Should  the  casing  be  cut  so  there  is  danger  of  the 
inner  tube  being  blown  through  it,  a temporary  repair 
can  be  made  by  cementing  a canvas  patch  on  the  inside 
of  the  easing.  Before  applying  the  patch  the  part  of 
the  casing  affected  should  be  cleaned  with  gasoline,  and 
when  dry,  rubber  cement  should  be  applied  to  both 
casing  and  patch.  This  will  answer  as  an  emergency 
repair,  but  the  casing  should  be  \nilcanized  at  the  first 
opportunity. 

To  prolong  the  life  of  the  tire  casings,  any  small 
cuts  in  the  tread  should  be  filled  with  patching  cement 
and  a specially  prepared  plastic  compound  sold  by  the 
tire  companies. 

Inner  tube  punctures  may  be  repaired  as  follows : 
After  locating  the  puncture,  carefully  clean  the  rubber 
around  the  leak  with  benzine  or  gasoline.  Then  rough 
the  surface  with  sandpaper  to  allow  the  cement  to 


TRANSMISSION  AND  RUNNING  GEAR 


171 


hold.  Apply  the  cement  to  both  patch  and  tube,  al- 
lowing it  to  dry  for  about  five  minutes.  Repeat  the 
application  twice  with  like  intervals  between  for  dry- 
ing. When  the  cement  is  dry  and  sticky  press  the 
patch  against  the  tube  firmly  and  thoroughly  to  re- 
move all  air  bubbles  beneath  it,  and  insure  proper 
adherence  to  the  surface.  Then  spread  some  soapstone 
or  talc  powder  over  the  repair  so  as  to  prevent  the  tube 
from  sticking  to  the  casing.  Before  the  tube  is  put 
back  into  the  casing  plenty  of  talc  powder  should  be 
sprinkled  into  the  latter.  A cement  patch  is  not  per- 
manent, and  the  tube  should  be  vulcanized  as  soon  as 
possible.  In  replacing  the  tire  on  the  rim  be  very 
careful  not  to  pinch  the  tube. 

Vulcanizing. — Only  the  best  grade  of  material 
should  be  used.  Absolute  cleanliness  is  necessary  in 
all  vulcanizing  work.  No  matter  how  good  a vulean- 
izer  you  have,  or  what  kind  of  repair  stock  you  use, 
the  smallest  amount  of  oil,  grease  or  dirt  will  greatly 
impair  the  work.  Therefore,  clean  every  repair  thor- 
oughly with  a cloth  or  brush  dipped  in  clean  gasoline 
and  roughen  the  point  of  repair  with  a rasp  or  coarse 
sandpaper  while  still  wet. 

Tires  must  be  dry  before  beginning  work  on  them, 
otherwise  a porous  patch  will  result.  If  you  think  for 
any  reason  that  the  canvas  in  the  casing  is  even  slightly 
damp,  clamp  the  vulcanizer  loosely  over  the  tire  for 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes  before  applying  the  first  coat  of 
cement.  Interpose  a piece  of  waste  or  something  of 
the  sort  between  the  vulcanizer  and  tire  to  permit  the 
escape  of  moisture. 

It  takes  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  to  vulcanize 
a layer  of  Para  rubber  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick  if 
the  thermometer  is  kept  at  265  degrees,  and  five  addi- 


172 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


tional  minutes  for  each  additional  sixteenth  of  an 
inch.  Vulcanization  will  occur  equally  well  at  all 
temperatures  between  250  and  275  degrees.  The  low- 
est temperatures  require  more  and  the  higher  tempera- 
tures less  time  than  stated  above. 

Inner  Tube  Punctures. — Clean  the  tube  thoroughly 
with  gasoline  and  coarse  sandpaper  for  at  least  an 
inch  all  around  the  hole,  being  careful  not  to  get  gaso- 
line inside  the  tube ; then  wipe  with  a cloth  moistened 
with  gasoline.  When  the  gasoline  has  evaporated, 
cement  the  edges  of  the  hole  and  apply  a thin  layer  of 
cement  to  the  tube  for  three-quarters  of  an  inch  on 
each  side  of  the  hole.  Let  the  cement  dry  until  all 
the  gasoline  has  evaporated  and  the  cement  is  solid 
enough  to  resist  the  touch.  Tacky  is  the  usual  word. 
Apply  a second  coat  and  let  it  dry  as  before.  If  a 
small  hole  is  to  be  repaired  fill  even  with  the  surface 
of  the  tube  with  layers  of  Para  rubber  cut  the  size  of 
the  hole,  taking  care  that  the  rubber  sticks  all  around 
the  edges.  If  a simple  puncture,  place  a narrow  strip 
of  Para  rubber  over  the  end  of  a match  and  insert  it 
into  the  hole.  Cut  off  what  protrudes  outside  the  tube. 
Cut  a patch  of  Para  one-eighth  of  an  inch  larger  than 
the  hole  or  puncture  and  apply  over  the  opening. 
Then  cut  another  patch  one-half  inch  larger  than  the 
hole  and  apply  over  the  first.  Cover  and  apply  the 
vuleanizer.  Eepairs  of  this  sort  should  be  vulcanized 
for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  at  265  degrees. 

Inner  Tube  Cuts  and  Tears. — Clean  as  already  di- 
rected, both  inside  and  outside  of  the  tube ; coat  the 
edges  of  the  cut  and  inside  and  outside  of  the  tube  with 
cement  and  let  it  dry.  The  cement  should  extend 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  back  from  the  cut. 

Cut  a strip  of  Para  rubber  as  wide  as  the  tube  is 


TRANSMISSION  AND  RUNNING  GEAR 


173 


thick  and  stick  on  the  edge  of  the  cut.  Cut  another 
strip  of  rubber  one-half  inch  wide,  using  rubber  which 
is  cured  on  one  side.  Place  this  piece  inside  of  the 
tube  and  under  the  tear  with  the  cured  side  down, 
bring  the  edges  of  the  tear  together  and  stick  them 
down  to  this  strip.  If  you  do  not  have  any  of  the 
Para  cured  on  one  side,  regular  Para  may  be  used 
after  cementing  a piece  of  paper  to  the  inside  of  the 
tube  opposite  the  cut  to  prevent  the  patch  from  stick- 
ing to  the  opposite  side.  Apply  another  strip  of  Para 
rubber  one-half  inch  wide  on  the  outside  of  the  repair 
and  vulcanize  for  twenty-five  minutes. 

Casings. — The  first  step  in  making  a casing  repair 
is,  just  as  in  the  ease  of  all  tire  work,  to  thoroughly 
clean  the  point  of  repair.  Apply  from  one  to  three 
layers  of  cement,  allowing  each  to  dry.  If  the  canvas 
is  exposed  put  on  enough  cement  to  fill  the  pores  of 
the  canvas  and  leave  a smooth  surface  when  dry.  Fill 
the  hole  with'  rubber  so  that  it  is  not  quite  level  with 
the  surface.  The  best  results  are  obtained  when  casing 
repairs  are  slightly  concave.  If  filled  too  full  the  rub- 
ber will  expand  and  flow  over  onto  the  unprepared 
surface  in  a thin  film  that  will  soon  peel  up  and  cause 
trouble.  Moreover,  a protruding  patch  will  receive 
more  than  its  share  of  hammering  and  will  undoubt- 
edly split  open. 

Always  use  a sheet  of  waxed  paper  between  the  vul- 
eanizer  and  the  tire  to  prevent  the  repair  from  stick- 
ing to  the  hot  iron.  It  is  not  necessary  to  cut  away 
a lot  of  good  rubber  when  mending  small  easing  cuts. 
Leave  everything  except  small  shreds  that  cannot  be 
incorporated  in  the  repair.  When  cutting  rubber,  wet 
the  knife  and  the  work  will  go  easier. 

If  a cemented  or  acid  cured  patch  has  been  used  to 


174 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


cover  the  point  to  be  repaired  it  must  be  removed,  and 
all  traces  of  the  cement  cleaned  from  the  tube.  A 
common  spring  bottom  oil  can  filled  with  gasoline  and 
and  old  tooth  brush  are  handy  for  cleaning  repairs. 

When  mending  small  casing  cuts  it  is  better  to  use 
small  scraps  of  rubber  than  to  try  to  cut  layers  to  fit 
the  hole.  All  air  bubbles  that  appear  when  adding 
layers  of  rubber  to  fill  up  a cut  must  be  punctured  with 
an  awl  and  pressed  dowm  flat.  Do  not  rush  the  work. 
A few  minutes  spent  in  preparing  a repair  and  vid- 
canizing  it  may  save  considerable  trouble  later. 

When  properly  cured,  a repair  should  be  gray  in 
color,  and  should  not  retain  an  indentation  made  by 
the  finger  nail.  The  longer  a repair  is  \mleanized  and 
the  higher  the  temperature  maintained,  the  harder  the 
patch  becomes.  If  a patch  simply  seems  too  soft,  ap- 
ply the  vulcanizer  a few  minutes  longer.  In  ease  it 
seems  necessary  to  increase  the  cure,  it  is  better  to 
add  to  the  time  than  to  the  temperature.  Under-cur- 
ing is  always  preferable  to  over-curing. 

If  a poor  patch  is  made  it  is  best  to  remove  it  en- 
tirely, recoating  the  hole  with  cement  and  filling  with 
fresh  rubber.  A porous  patch  is  caused  by  a damp 
tire,  by  failure  to  let  the  gasoline  evaporate  after 
cleaning  the  tire,  by  failure  to  let  the  cement  dry  or 
by  air-pockets  between  the  layers.  It  may  also  be 
caused  by  too  high  a temperature.  The  latter  cause 
makes  a patch  hard  and  brittle. 

Do  not  inflate  inner  tubes  until  after  they  have 
cooled,  for  a bulge  is  liable  to  be  the  result.  Your  tire 
pump  makes  an  excellent  bellows  for  cleaning  the  dirt 
from  sand-pockets  or  casing  cuts,  as  well  as  for  drjdng 
the  gasoline  after  washing  the  canvas. 


CHAPTEE  VII 


TEOVBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  EEMEDIES 

The  process  of  locating  and  remedying  motor  car 
troubles  may  be  simplified  and  rendered  comparatively 
easy  by  a systematic  classification  of  the  symptoms. 
With  such  a classification  as  a guide  it  is  possible  to 
eliminate  the  most  probable  causes,  and  gradually 
work  through  the  list  until  the  particular  trouble  which 
exists  is  located. 

For  convenience  in  explaining  the  operation  of  such 
a method  we  will  divide  all  power  plant  faults  into 
seven  groups  as  follows : 

1.  Failure  of  the  engine  to  start. 

2.  Sudden  stopping  of  the  engine. 

3.  Engine  Igses  power. 

4.  Engine  overheats. 

5.  Engine  is  noisy. 

6.  Ignition  trouble. 

7.  Carburetor  trouble. 

Any  one  of  the  first  five  symptoms  may  be  easily 
recognized,  but  the  last  two  are  sometimes  more  diffi- 
cult to  determine,  because  either  one  of  them,  or  a 
combination  of  the  two,  may  produce  one  or  more  of 
the  first  five. 

FAILURE  OF  ENGINE  TO  START 

In  case  the  engine  will  not  start,  the  operator  should 
first  make  sure  that  the  switch  on  the  coil  is  turned 


175 


176 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


either  to  the  BAT  position  or  toward  the  i\IAG  posi- 
tion, because  experienced  drivers  have  been  known  to 
crank  for  a long  while  with  either  one  of  these  simple 
troubles  present.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  gasoline 
cannot  flow  through  the  carburetor  because  the  supply 
valve  underneath  the  fuel  tank  is  closed. 

In  case  the  vibrators  on  the  coils  have  been  adjusted 
or  tampered  with  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  points 
have  been  set  too  close  together  so  that  no  spark  is 
produced,  and  in  this  ease  it  will  be  necessary  to  re- 
adjust them  according  to  the  directions  given  in  an- 
other part  of  this  book. 

It  might  be  well  at  this  point  to  disconnect  one  of 
the  wires  from  a spark  plug  and  lay  it  in  such  a posi- 
tion that  the  metal  end  on  the  wire  is  supported  with- 
in about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  some  metal  part  of 
the  power  plant.  With  the  switch  turned  on  the  en- 
gine should  be  cranked,  and  if  a spark  passes  from 
the  end  of  the  wire  to  the  metal  of  the  engine  the 
ignition  system  is  in  working  order.  If  no  spark  is 
visible  it  will  be  well  to  lift  the  floor  boards  and  take 
the  contact  terminal  for  the  magneto  out  of  its  position 
above  the  flywheel,  because  it  is  quite  often  found  that 
the  low'er  end  of  this  contact  is  covered  with  some  for- 
eign matter  which  prevents  the  flow  of  current  through 
it.  If  this  contact  is  in  good  condition,  and  clean,  the 
commutator  should  be  examined  to  see  that  it  is  free 
from  water  or  congealed  oil,  and  if  these  troubles  are 
not  present  and  still  no  spark  is  secured,  the  section  of 
this  Chapter  which  refers  to  ignition  trouble  should 
be  consulted. 

If  with  the  spark  plug  disconnected  and  held  close 
to  some  metal  surface  a good  spark  is  noted  to  pass,  it 
may  be  assumed  that  the  trouble  lies  with  the  fuel 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


177 


system,  and  the  carburetor  adjustment  on  the  dash 
should  be  closed  by  turning  it  to  the  right  and  should 
then  be  reopened  about  one  turn. 

If  this  does  not  remedy  the  matter  the  drain  cock 
below  the  sediment  bulb  under  the  gasoline  tank 
should  be  opened  because  it  is  quite  possible  that  there 
is  water  in  this  bulb.  The  drain  cock  on  the  carbu- 
retor should  also  be  opened  momentarily  for  the  same 
reason.  In  cold  weather  it  may  be  found  that  water 
in  the  sediment  bulb,  or  in  the  carburetor,  has  frozen, 
thus  stopping  the  flow  of  fuel. 

SUDDEN  STOPPING  OF  ENGINE 

In  ease  the  engine  comes  to  a more  or  less  sudden 
stop  the  gasoline  tank  should  be  looked  into  to  see 
that  there  is  a supply  of  fuel,  and  if  gasoline  is  present 
it  is  next  in  order  to  lift  the  hood  and  see  that  no 
wires  are  loose  or  broken. 

The  floor  boards  should  be  taken  up  and  the  wire 
which  is  attached  to  the  magneto  terminal  on  top  of 
the  flywheel  case  should  be  followed  from  this  point  to 
the  coil  terminal,  and  it  should  be  tightly  secured  at 
both  ends.  The  magneto  contact  terminal  should  be  re- 
moved and  examined  to  see  that  it  is  clean. 

It  is  possible  that  the  carburetor  adjustment  on  the 
dash  has  jarred  from  its  correct  position,  and  has  re- 
duced the  supply  of  fuel  in  the  mixture  to  a point  that 
stops  the  engine.  This  adjustment  should  be  turned  to 
the  right  until  the  needle  valve  is  closed,  and  should 
then  be  given  one  full  turn  to  the  left. 

After  the  engine  comes  to  a stop  the  hood  should  be 
lifted  and  the  carburetor  watched  to  see  whether  liquid 
fuel  in  considerable  quantities  is  dropping  from  it,  and 
if  this  is  the  case,  it  indicates  that  the  float  valve  in 


178 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


the  carburetor  is  sticking  open.  This  condition  may 
be  remedied  in  most  cases  by  tapping  the  body  of 
the  carburetor  with  a piece  of  wood.  If  the  flooding 
still  continues  it  will  be  necessary  to  close  the  supply 
valve  underneath  the  gasoline  tank  and  disassemble 
the  carburetor  until  the  float  valve  mechanism  is 
reached,  when  the  trouble  present  may  be  easily  rem- 
edied because  it  will  generally  be  found  that  a piece 
of  dirt  has  lodged  between  the  float  valve  and  the 
seat.  If  tapping  the  carburetor  causes  the  flooding 
to  stop,  the  engine  may  be  started,  flrst  closing  the 
adjustment  on  the  dash  by  turning  it  to  the  right  and 
then  cranking.  After  the  crank  has  been  given  several 
revolutions  the  dash  adjustment  should  be  given  one 
full  turn  to  the  left,  after  which  the  engine  should 
start. 

In  case  none  of  the  above  mentioned  troubles  are 
present  the  fuel  line  should  be  disconnected  from  the 
carburetor,  and  the  flow  of  liquid  noted.  In  case  there 
is  no  flow,  or  in  case  the  flow  is  in  a very  small  stream, 
the  pipe  should  be  disconnected  from  the  tank  end  and 
blown  through  by  placing  the  lips  at  the  carburetor 
end.  This  will  dislodge  any  obstacles  that  may  have 
entered  the  fuel  line. 

It  may  also  be  found  that  some  foreign  substance 
is  obstructing  the  opening  in  the  tank  which  leads  to 
the  sediment  bulb  and  fuel  line.  This  has  been  known 
to  happen  when  inner  tube  patches  drop  into  the  tank 
through  the  flller  opening.  The  engine  may  have 
been  brought  to  a stop  by  water  in  the  gasoline,  and 
this  water  may  be  gotten  rid  of  by  opening  the  drain 
cock  on  the  carburetor  or  underneath  the  sediment 
bulb  below  the  fuel  tank. 

If  the  engine  labored  and  seemed  to  be  losing  power 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


179 


before  it  came  to  a stop  the  trouble  may  be  clue  to  lack 
of  water  in  the  radiator,  or  to  lack  of  cylinder  oil,  and 
either  one  of  these  conditions  suggests  its  remedy. 

A sudden  stoppage  of  the  engine  may  be  due  to  al- 
most any  of  the  troubles  mentioned  in  the  sections  of 
this  Chapter  devoted  to  ignition  and  carburetor  faults, 
and  if  no  remedy  has  been  effective,  these  sections 
should  be  consulted. 

ENGINE  LOSES  POWER 

This  division  of  trouble  may  be  subdivided  into  two 
parts,  one  of  which  will  cover  those  occurring  at  low 
speed,  and  the  other  those  found  at  high  speed. 

The  most  probable  source  of  low  speed  trouble  is  in 
loss  of  compression,  and  this  loss  may  be  due  to  any 
one  of  many  causes.  The  compression  of  each  cylinder 
should  be  tested  by  turning  the  starting  crank  with 
the  ignition  switch  in  the  off  position  and  noting  the 
resistance  to  cranking  as  the  compression  stroke  for 
each  cylinder  i^  reached.  Should  the  crank  turn  com- 
paratively easy  during  any  one-half  revolution  it  will 
be  well  to  remove  the  spark  plugs  from  all  but  one 
cylinder.  Then  crank  the  engine  again  and  notice 
whether  there  is  a decided  resistance  to  turning  once 
in  every  two  complete  revolutions.  If  such  a resist- 
ance is  found  to  be  present  the  spark  plug  should  be 
removed  from  the  one  cylinder  in  which  it  has  been  al- 
lowed to  remain,  and  a plug  should  be  replaced  in  one 
of  the  other  three  cylinders,  and  the  cranking  opera- 
tion again  gone  through  with.  When  it  is  found  that 
with  a spark  plug  in  place  there  is  insufficient  compres- 
sion to  cause  the  crank  to  spring  backward  wdien  it  is 
brought  to  a certain  point  in  turning,  it  indicates  that 
the  cylinder  in  Vvdiich  the  plug  is  then  inserted  is  los- 


180 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


ing  compression  for  one  of  the  reasons  mentioned  here- 
after. 

It  is  possible  for  the  mixture  to  leave  the  combustion 
space  because  of  defective  spark  plugs,  defective  valves 
or  valve  operation,  defective  cylinder  head  gaskets, 
leaks  between  the  piston  rings  and  cylinder  walls,  or 
through  a leak  in  the  cylinder  casting  itself. 

A test  may  be  made  for  leaks  around  the  spark  plug 
threads  by  placing  cylinder  oil  around  these  joints 
and  then  cranking  the  engine.  Bubbles  will  show  the 
location  of  any  of  these  leaks.  If  leaks  are  present  the 
plug  may  be  loose  or  some  of  the  threads  may  be 
broken  either  on  the  plug  or  in  the  cylinder  casting. 

The  central  part  of  the  spark  plug  should  be  grasped 
and  moved  if  possible.  A broken  porcelain  will  allow 
the  gas  to  leak  and  a new  one  is  the  only  remedy.  If 
the  porcelain  or  mica  part  of  the  plug  is  loose  in  the 
shell  the  packing  nut  should  be  screwed  down,  but 
should  not  be  turned  so  hard  that  it  will  break  the 
insulating  member  of  the  plug. 

Should  the  large  gasket  between  the  removable  cyl- 
inder head  and  the  body  of  the  cylinder  casting  be 
defective,  the  condition  will  probably  be  indicated  by 
water  leaks,  either  on  the  outside  of  the  engine  or  into 
the  combustion  space.  Water  leaks  into  the  combus- 
tion space  will  be  found  upon  the  removal  of  the 
spark  plug  in  the  first  place  because  the  water  will  be 
thrown  out,  or  at  least  a few  drops  will  be  noticed 
when  the  engine  is  cranked.  The  only  satisfactory 
way  to  remedy  such  a condition  is  to  remove  the  cyl- 
inder head  and  replace  the  old  gasket  with  a new  one. 

If  the  compression  remains  poor  after  the  above 
mentioned  points  have  been  checked  the  trouble  will 
probably  be  found  due  to  dirty  valves  or  to  some  defect 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


181 


in  the  valve  operation.  This  will  call  for  the  removal 
of  the  cylinder  head,  after  which  it  will  be  possible  to 
examine  the  faces  of  the  valves  and  their  seats  in  the 
cylinder  castings  to  see  that  they  are  clean.  It  will 
often  be  found  that  small  particles  of  carbon  have 
lodged  between  the  valves  and  the  seats  so  that  the  gas 
is  allowed  to  escape.  This  means  that  the  valve  should 
be  ground. 

With  the  cylinder  head  removed  the  engine  should 
be  cranked  and  the  valves  watched  as  they  move  up 
and  down.  If  they  are  sluggish  in  their  action,  or  if 
one  of  the  valves  does  not  close,  the  spring  should  be 
removed  and  the  stem  of  the  valve  should  be  examined 
and  cleaned,  if  necessary.  With  the  valve  removed 
from  the  cylinder  it  should  be  laid  with  the  stem  on  a 
flat  table  top,  or  other  flat  surface,  and  rolled.  As 
the  stem  rolls  over  the  surface  it  may  be  noted  whether 
it  is  bent.  If  the  stem  is  found  to  be  warped  out  of 
shape  it  should  be  replaced  with  a new  one. 

The  face  of  the  valve  and  its  seat  should  be  examined 
for  pitting  or  score  marks,  and  unless  these  surfaces 
are  found  to  be  smooth  the  valve  should  be  carefully 
ground.  The  valve  may  also  be  held  a slight  distance 
from  its  seat  by  a shoulder  which  has  been  worn  into 
the  metal  of  the  valve  stem,  or  because  of  a shoulder 
or  a ring  which  has  been  formed  on  the  face  of  the 
valve.  Either  of  these  last  mentioned  troubles  re- 
quires that  the  valve  be  placed  in  a lathe  and  the  face 
or  stem  turned  to  a true  surface. 

While  the  valves  are  being  examined  it  will  be  easy 
to  note  such  troubles  as  a broken  stem,  a cracked  valve 
head  or  a cracked  valve  seat,  and  it  should  also  be 
noted  whether  the  valve  spring  fastenings  were  loose, 
or  whether  the  valve  adjustments,  if  any  are  used,  were 


182 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


out  of  order.  These  troubles  either  require  a remedy 
which  is  perfectly  evident,  or  else  call  for  new  parts. 

If  the  valves  are  found  to  be  in  good  order  it  is  pos- 
sible that  the  compression  leak  is  between  the  piston 
rings  and  the  cylinder  walls.  This  may  be  caused  by 
scratches  or  score  marks  and  to  remedy  this  condition 
it  will  be  necessary  to  rebore  the  old  cylinders,  or  else 
to  replace  them  with  a new  block.  It  is  also  possible 
that  the  cylinders  have  been  cracked  by  freezing  of  the 
cooling  water,  and  the  best  remedy  for  this  will  be 
new  cylinders.  In  case  the  water  has  been  frozen 
it  is  possible  that  the  cylinder  head  casting  has  been 
cracked,  and  this,  of  course,  would  lead  to  results 
equally  as  bad  as  those  coming  from  cracked  cyl- 
inders. 

If  the  piston  rings  are  not  bearing  evenly  against 
the  cylinder  walls  the  condition  will  be  made  apparent 
by  black  patches,  or  lines,  on  the  walls,  and  it  will 
probably  be  best  to  replace  the  old  rings  with  new 
ones.  New  rings  require  a certain  length  of  time  to 
wear  to  a proper  fit,  and  the  best  results  should  not  be 
expected  until  this  time  has  elapsed.  In  case  the  open- 
ings, or  slots,  through  the  sides  of  the  rings  on  any  one 
piston  have  been  moved  into  such  position  that  they 
are  almost  directly  above  one  another,  it  is  quite  prob- 
able that  a loss  of  compression  will  result,  and  this 
loss  may  be  stopped  by  moving  the  rings  so  that  the 
openings  are  equally  spaced  from  each  other  around 
the  outside  of  the  piston. 

A loss  of  power  may  be  occasioned  by  some  classes 
of  valve  trouble  which  will  not  result  in  a loss  of  com- 
pression. The  most  common  of  this  class  of  troubles 
is  too  great  a clearance  between  the  lower  end  of  the 
valve  stem  and  the  upper  end  of  the  push  rod  which 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


183 


lifts  it.  In  case  tlie  pusli  rods  are  not  of  the  adjust- 
able type  it  will  be  best  to  secure  a new  valve,  or  a new 
rod,  depending  on  which  one  is  too  short.  This  clear- 
ance should  be  but  little  greater  than  the  thickness  of 
a heavy  piece  of  wrapping  paper,  and  if  it  is  too  great, 
the  valve  will  not  have  sufficient  lift  to  admit  a full 
charge  of  gas.  A rare  trouble,  and  one  which  is  for- 
tunately seldom  encountered,  is  that  in  which  the  up- 
per end  of  the  valve  lifter,  or  push  rod,  is  worn  hollow 
so  that  the  valve  stem  drops  into  this  hollow  and  pro- 
duces the  same  trouble  as  would  be  brought  about 
by  too  great  a clearance  between  the  stem  and  the 
rod. 

Fuel  trouble  may  cause  a loss  of  power,  and  such 
trouble  is  probably  due  to  an  incorrect  carburetor  ad- 
justment. The  adjustment  should  be  made  right,  ac- 
cording to  the  instructions  given  in  another  part  of 
this  book.  A rather  peculiar  trouble  of  this  general 
class  is  that  caused  by  an  air  leak  into  the  inlet  mani- 
fold. The  dilution  of  the  mixture  that  results  will 
materially  reduce  the  power.  Such  a leak  may  be 
easily  located  by  securing  a squirt  can  filled  with  gaso- 
line, and  while  the  engine  is  running,  spraying  the 
liquid  on  the  inlet  manifold  and  at  the  joints  between 
the  manifold  and  cylinder,  and  between  the  manifold 
and  the  carburetor.  The  engine  will  run  evenly  until 
the  liquid  gasoline  strikes  an  air  leak,  and  when  this 
happens,  the  additional  fuel  which  will  be  drawn  into 
the  manifold  will  cause  the  engine  to  run  either  slower 
or  faster.  When  this  happens  the  point  at  which  the 
liquid  is  being  thrown  should  be  examined,  and  if  it 
is  at  a joint,  this  joint  should  be  remade  with  a new 
gasket.  If  the  leak  is  in  the  manifold  proper  it  may 
be  welded,  or  else  a new  manifold  may  be  secured. 


184 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


A loss  of  power  may  be  found  to  be  due  to  an  in- 
correct adjustment  of  the  vibrators  on  the  coils,  or  it 
may  be  due  to  a faulty  spark  plug.  The  spark  plug 
should  be  removed  and  the  surfaces  of  the  insulating 
core,  which  extend  inside  the  combustion  space  end  of 
the  plug,  should  be  cleaned  with  gasoline  and  a stiff 
brush.  At  this  same  time  the  gap  between  the  spark 
plug  points  should  be  examined,  and  should  be  made 
equal  to  about  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch.  Too  little 
gap  between  these  points  will  cause  a loss  of  power  at 
low  speeds. 

Loss  of  power  at  high  engine  speed  may  possibly  be 
due  to  some  of  the  causes  already  mentioned  for  low 
speed  action,  but  it  is  more  likely  that  the  trouble  will 
be  found  among  those  that  will  now  be  mentioned. 
The  carburetor  adjustment  should  be  tested  and  a 
greater  opening  should  be  tried,  that  is,  the  engine 
should  be  run  with  the  dash  adjustment  turned  farther 
to  the  left. 

The  spark  plugs  should  be  removed  and  the  spaces 
between  their  points  examined.  If  these  gaps  are 
greater  than  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  there  will 
be  loss  of  power  at  high  speed.  The  contact  between 
the  commutator  roller  and  the  contact  segments  inside 
of  the  commutator  shell  should  be  examined,  and  if 
the  surfaces  are  in  such  condition  that  a poor  contact 
is  made,  the  effect  will  be  most  noticeable  at  high 
speed.  The  best  remedy  will  be  either  a new  roller  or 
a new  shell,  or  both.  The  contacts  of  the  coil  ^dbrator 
should  be  examined  and  cleaned  if  they  are  at  all  dirty, 
because  dirt  at  this  point  will  reduce  the  current  flow 
and  will  affect  high  speed  operation  when  all  of  the 
available  electricity  is  needed. 

All  of  the  exliaust  valve  springs  in  any  one  engine 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


185 


sliould  have  equal  strength.  The  springs  may  be  tested 
by  placing  two  of  them  end  to  end  and  pressing  them 
together.  If  either  spring  being  tested  compresses  to 
a greater  degree  than  the  other  one,  it  should  be  re- 
placed with  a spring  which  shows  the  proper  strength. 

When  the  valves  fail  to  seat  themselves  properly 
there  is  a possibility  that  the  springs  may  be  weak  or 
broken.  A weak  inlet  spring  would  probably  not  af- 
fect the  running  of  the  engine,  but  weakness  in  the 
exliaust  valve  spring  causes  a very  uneven  action, 
which  is  difficult  to  locate.  The  symptoms  are  a lag 
in  the  engine,  due  to  the  exhaust  valve  not  closing  in- 
stantaneously, and  as  a result  a certain  percentage  of 
charge  under  compression  escapes,  greatly  diminishing 
the  force  of  the  explosion. 

Weakness  in  a valve  spring  can  usually  be  detected 
by  the  following  method : Remove  the  plate  which 

encloses  them  at  the  side  of  the  cylinder  and  insert 
a screwdriver  between  the  coils  of  the  springs  while 
the  engine  is  running.  If  the  extra  tension  thus  pro- 
duced causes  the  engine  to  pick  up  speed,  the  spring 
is  obviously  weak  and  should  be  replaced  with  a new 
one. 

There  are  certain  troubles  which  will  cause  a loss  of 
power  at  high  speed,  and  which  require  a certain 
amount  of  disassembling  of  the  engine  to  locate  them. 
These  troubles  include  looseness  of  the  timing  gears, 
either  on  one  end  of  the  camshaft  or  on  the  end  of  the 
crankshaft.  The  camshaft  itself  may  have  been  bent 
or  sprung,  in  which  case  it  will  be  best  to  get  a new 
one.  It  may  be  found  that  the  cams,  the  push  rods, 
the  push  rod  guides  or  the  camshaft  bearings  have  be- 
come so  badly  worn  that  the  valve  opening  is  imper- 
fect and  a loss  of  power  results. 


186 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


ENGINE  OVERHEATS 

lu  case  tlie  engine  becomes  so  hot  that  the  water  in 
the  radiator  steams,  the  carbui’etor  adjustment  should 
be  examined,  and  if  the  engine  will  continue  to  run 
smoothly  the  adjustment  on  the  dash  should  be  turned 
just  as  far  to  the  right  as  it  will  go,  or  until  a notice- 
able falling  off  in  power  results.  The  dri-vung  condi- 
tions may  be  responsible  for  the  trouble  if  the  spark 
lever  is  not  advanced  or  brought  toward  the  driver  far 
enough.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  spark  should 
be  carried  advanced  just  as  far  as  possible  without 
causing  the  engine  to  knock. 

Overheating  may  be  caused  by  dirty  spark  plugs, 
and  it  is  advisable  that  they  be  removed  from  the  cyl- 
inder and  cleaned  as  a precaution,  if  for  no  other 
reason.  If  the  engine  has  been  run  with  an  exces- 
sively rich  mixture,  or  with  an  over-supply  of  oil,  the 
piston  head  and  the  surfaces  of  the  combustion  cham- 
ber may  have  become  so  covered  with  carbon  as  to 
cause  heating.  This  carbon  may  be  removed  by  burn- 
ing with  oxygen,  or  taking  off  the  cylinder  head  and 
scraping  it  away.  After  this  is  done  the  oil  level 
should  be  made  right,  and  the  carburetor  mixture 
should  be  properly  adjusted. 

The  natural  place  to  look  for  overheating  is  in  the 
cooling  system,  and  many  of  these  troubles  will  be 
found  there.  The  level  of  the  water  in  the  radiator 
should  first  be  noted,  and  if  it  is  low  for  any  reason,  the 
supply  should  be  replenished  and  any  leaks  in  the  radi- 
ator or  in  the  piping  should  be  repaired. 

The  fan  belt  may  be  torn,  or  the  adjustment  may 
have  become  loosened  so  that  the  fan  does  not  run 
with  sufScient  speed.  If  the  belt  is  worn,  or  damaged. 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


187 


it  should  be  renewed,  and  if  the  belt  is  found  to  be 
loose  the  adjustment  should  be  made  tighter.  It  may 
be  found  that  the  fan  bearing  is  binding  because  of 
lack  of  oil.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  give  the  grease  cup 
a few  turns,  but  it  will  generally  be  best  to  take  the 
bearing  apart,  clean  it,  and  give  it  proper  lubrication. 

The  hose  between  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  radiator 
and  the  engine  may  be  kinked,  or  may  be  rotted  and 
loose  inside.  In  case  it  is  kinked  it  should  be  short- 
ened and  straightened  out.  If  it  is  rotted  it,  of  course, 
should  be  renewed.  It  may  be  found  that  the  gaskets 
at  the  joints  between  the  engine  and  the  hose  fittings 
have  been  replaced  with  new  ones  of  soft  material, 
which  may  have  swollen  to  form  an  obstruction  to  the 
flow  of  water. 

The  outside  of  the  radiator  should  be  cleaned  of  any 
deposit  of  dirt,  oil  or  scale  that  may  have  collected, 
and  this  cleaning  can  best  be  done  with  gasoline,  or 
water,  and  a good,  stiff  brush. 

No  harm  will  be  done  should  the  water  boil  occa- 
sionally while  driving  through  mud  or  deep  sand,  or 
up  long  hills  in  hot  weather;  however,  if  there  is  a 
continual  overheating  with  the  engine  running  under 
ordinary  conditions  the  cause  should  be  found  and  the 
remedy  applied.  The  cause  may  be  in  too  much  driv- 
ing in  low  gear,  or  because  of  a poor  grade  of  oil,  or  an 
insufficient  supply  of  oil.  Racing  the  engine  will  also 
result  in  overheating.  One  cause  of  heating  which  is 
often  overlooked  is  that  due  to  a clogged  muffler,  or  to  a 
muffler  full  of  soot  and  carbon.  Such  a condition  re- 
sults in  excessive  back  pressure  and  prevents  a proper 
exhausting  of  the  burned  gas  so  that  the  heat  is  re- 
tained in  the  engine  and  must  be  taken  care  of  by  the 
cooling  water. 


188 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


The  radiator  and  cylinder  jackets  may  be  freed 
from  any  deposit  of  dirt  and  scale  by  the  following 
method : Secure  five  pounds  of  caustic  soda  from  a 
laundry  supply  house  and  add  the  soda  slowly  to  a 
pail  of  water  until  the  solution  makes  two  and  one- 
half  gallons.  This  means  that  a sufficient  quantity 
should  be  used  to  dissolve  the  five  pounds  of  soda  and 
to  result  in  a total  quantity  of  mixture  equal  to  two 
and  one-half  gallons.  Drain  the  cooling  water  and 
pour  this  solution  into  the  radiator.  Then  run  the  en- 
gine for  about  five  minutes  and  again  open  the  drain- 
cock.  After  the  solution  has  left  the  cooling  system, 
wash  out  the  radiator  and  jackets  with  several  fillings 
of  clean  water.  This  caustic  is  very  poisonous  and 
will  quickly  burn  the  flesh  of  the  one  using  it  should 
any  of  the  solution  get  on  the  hands.  Great  care 
should,  therefore,  be  used  in  handling  the  mixture. 

If  the  cooling  system  is  in  good  order  the  trouble 
may  be  due  to  improper  oiling.  The  oil  may  be  of  poor 
quality,  which  is  the  worst  possible  form  of  economy, 
or  else  it  may  be  too  heavy^  or  too  light.  The  oil  may 
have  become  so  old  and  dirty  as  to  have  lost  most 
of  its  lubricating  qualities  and  it  should  be  drained 
away  and  replaced  with  a fresh  supply. 

The  power  plant  should  be  carefully  examined  for 
oil  leaks  which  lower  the  level.  The  pet-cocks  on  the 
flywheel  ease  should  be  opened  and  the  oil  should  be 
high  enough  to  flow  out  of  the  lower  cock.  If  there 
is  plenty  of  good  oil  present  and  the  engine  seems 
to  drag  and  bind,  together  with  the  overheating,  it  is 
possible  that  the  oil  pipe  inside  of  the  engine  is  leak- 
ing, bent  or  clogged.  The  only  way  to  check  this 
condition  will  be  to  disassemble  the  engine  sufficiently 
to  remove  the  pipe  and  blow  through  it. 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


189 


ENGINE  NOISE 

In  case  of  any  noise  becoming  noticeable  in  the 
power  plant  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  examine  the  oil 
supply  and  see  that  it  is  sufficient.  In  ease  the  noise 
is  evident  as  a clicking  or  a rattling,  the  following 
points  should  be  checked.  First  look  at  the  fan  to  see 
that  none  of  its  blades  are  hitting  some  other  part  of 
the  power  plant.  A clicking  which  keeps  time  with 
the  engine  may  be  caused  by  too  much  clearance  be- 
tween the  lower  end  of  the  valve  stem  and  the  valve 
lifter,  and  the  remedy  for  this  condition  has  already 
been  explained.  While  examining  the  clearance  the 
valve  stem  should  be  puUed  back  and  forth  to  see  that 
the  guide  has  not  become  excessively  worn  and  a sim- 
ilar test  should  be  applied  to  the  guides  for  the  valve 
lifters. 

A hissing  noise  will  be  caused  by  any  leakage  of 
gas  or  of  the  exhaust  around  the  spark  plugs  or  any 
of  the  manifold,  gaskets.  In  the  case  of  the  piston 
rings  being  completely  broken,  it  would  be  possible 
to  notice  the  escape  of  the  gas  by  the  hissing  sound 
caused  as  it  enters  the  crankcase,  but  it  is  not  probable 
that  this  condition  would  be  located  by  this  noise  but 
rather  by  the  lack  of  power  which  would  be  the  imme- 
diate result. 

Noises  in  the  engine  which  may  be  classed  as  knocks 
or  pounds  may  be  the  result  of  any  one  of  a long  list 
of  troubles.  The  most  probable  fault  is  that  pre- 
ignition is  occurring  because  of  red  hot  pieces  of  car- 
bon which  have  collected  in  the  combustion  space. 
This  form  of  trouble  will  cause  a clear  sharp  knock  or 
rapping  sound.  It  is  possible  to  cause  knocking  by 
driving  the  ear  with  the  spark  too  far  advanced  and 


190 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


the  obvious  remedy  is  to  carry  the  lever  in  a more 
retarded  position. 

Looseness  in  any  of  the  engine  bearings  will  cause 
various  kinds  of  knocks  and  pounds.  The  most  com- 
mon point  at  which  such  trouble  will  be  found  is  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  connecting  rods  and  the  result- 
ing noise  will  be  especially  noticeable  when  running 
at  high  speed  or  when  running  at  a moderate  speed 
down  grade  and  with  the  engine  exerting  very  little 
effort.  Looseness  of  the  crankshaft  bearings  will 
cause  a dull  thud  whenever  the  engine  is  pulling  hard. 
Looseness  at  the  upper  end  of  the  connecting  rod; 
that  is,  in  the  wrist  pin  bearings,  will  be  noticed  be- 
cause of  a peculiar  sharp  tapping  which  seems  to  come 
from  a point  near  the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder  cast- 
ings. Loose  camshaft  bearings  may  also  cause  knock- 
ing under  certain  conditions,  and  if  either  the  cam- 
shaft or  crankshaft  are  sprung  out  of  line,  the  result 
will  be  a loosening  of  the  bearings  which  will  make 
a noticeable  knock. 

In  case  of  any  of  the  bolts  holding  the  several  parts 
of  the  engine  and  power  plant  together  become  loose, 
a very  disagreeable  noise  will  result.  The  points  at 
which  such  looseness  may  occur  are  in  the  bolts  which 
hold  the  engine  to  the  frame,  in  the  bolts  which  hold 
the  cylinder  head  onto  the  cylinder  block,  in  the  bolts 
which  hold  the  fljTvheel  to  the  end  of  the  crankshaft 
and  camshaft. 

Wear  in  the  teeth  of  the  timing  gears  will  result 
in  a continuous  high  pitched  sound  which  will  in- 
crease in  intensity  with  the  engine  speed.  Wear  of 
the  pistons  or  in  the  cylinders  will  result  in  a sharp 
rattle  or  in  a slapping  noise  whenever  the  engine 
speed  is  suddenly  increased.  A broken  piston  ring 


TROUBLES,  SYiVEPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


191 


will  make  a noise  of  similar  character.  Excessive 
vibration  of  the  engine  may  be  caused  by  incorrect 
assembling  especially  in  case  the  engine  has  been 
taken  apart  and  the  flywheel  replaced  in  the  wrong 
position  with  reference  to  the  crankshaft.  The  fly- 
wheel is  balanced  with  the  engine,  and  before  it  is 
removed  for  any  reason,  its  position  in  relation  to 
the  crankshaft  should  be  carefully  noticed  and  it 
should  always  be  replaced  in  this  position. 

Various  noises  may  be  caused  by  insufficient  clear- 
ance between  some  of  the  moving  parts  of  the  engine 
and  power  plant.  One  rather  common  cause  for  this 
trouble  is  that  which  results  from  the  use  of  spark 
plugs  whose  shells  extend  down  into  the  cylinder  for 
too  great  a distance.  This  may  result  in  the  valve 
striking  the  spark  plug.  A knock  will  also  result  in 
case  the  cylinder  head  gasket  has.  been  replaced  in 
such  a position  that  it  extends  out  over  the  upper  edge 
of  the  cylinder  walls  because  this  extended  portion 
will  be  struck  by  the  piston  once  in  every  stroke. 
Should  the  under  pan  or  crankcase  of  the  engine  have 
become  bent  or  dented  it  may  be  possible  that  the 
lower  end  of  the  connecting  rod  is  striking  it,  and 
the  result  will  of  course  be  a sharp  knock  for  every 
revolution  of  the  crankshaft. 

IGNITION  TROUBLE 

An  uneven  sputter  and  bang  of  the  exhaust  means 
that  one  or  more  cylinders  are  firing  irregularly  or 
not  at  all,  and  that  the  trouble  should  be  promptly 
located  and  overcome.  Misfiring,  if  allowed  to  con- 
tinue, will  in  time  injure  the  engine  and  the  entire 
mechanism.  A good  driver  will  be  satisfied  only  with 


192 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


a soft,  steady  purr  from  the  exhaust.  If  anything 
goes  wrong,  stop  and  fix  it  at  once  if  possible. 

To  find  the  missing  cylinder  take  a wood-handled 
screwdriver  or  a hammer,  and  while  the  engine  is 
running,  lay  the  screwdriver  blade  or  the  hammer 
head  from  the  top  of  the  spark  plug  to  the  cylinder  so 
that  the  current  goes  through  the  screwdriver  or  ham- 
mer head  in  place  of  across  the  gap  in  the  plug. 

If  the  cylinder  being  tested  was  firing  you  will 
notice  the  engine  slow  down;  but  if  the  cylinder  was 
not  firing,  it  will  make  no  difference  when  the  plug 
is  short-circuited  in  this  way. 

To  test  the  spark  remove  a spark  plug  and  con- 
nect its  wire  to  it.  Lay  the  plug  on  top  of  the  cyl- 
inder with  the  threads  touching  the  metal,  but  do  not 
let  the  top  of  the  plug  or  the  wire  touch  the  engine. 
By  cranking  vdth  the  switch  turned  on  you  can  now 
see  the  spark  jump  across  the  gap.  Sometimes  a spark 
that  will  jump  through  the  air  as  above  will  not 
jump  through  the  compressed  gas.  If  a spark  will 
jump  from  the  end  of  the  wire  a distance  of  one- 
fourth  inch  it  should  jump  the  gap  while  in  the 
cylinder. 

The  missing  cylinder  may  also  be  located  by  manip- 
idating  the  vibrators  on  the  spark  coils.  Open  the 
throttle  until  the  engine  is  running  at  a good  speed 
and  then  hold  down  the  two  outside  vibrators,  num- 
ber one  and  number  four,  with  the  fingers,  so  they 
cannot  buzz.  This  cuts  out  the  two  corresponding  cyl- 
inders, number  one  and  number  four,  leaving  only 
number  two  and  number  three  running.  If  they  fire 
regularly  it  is  obvious  the  trouble  is  in  either  number 
one  or  number  four.  Believe  number  four  and  hold 
down  number  two  and  number  three  and  also  num- 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


193 


ber  one.  If  number  four  cylinder  fires  evenly  it  is 
evident  the  misfiring  is  in  number  one.  In  this  man- 
ner all  of  the  cylinders  in  turn  can  be  tested  until  the 
trouble  is  located.  Examine  both  the  spark  plug  and 
the  vibrator  of  the  missing  cylinder. 

If  ignition  trouble  still  remains  it  will  be  advisable 
to  examine  the  spark  plug  of  the  cylinder  which 
misses  fire  or  to  examine  all  the  plugs.  See  that  the 
points  between  which  the  spark  jumps  are  free  from 
dirt,  oil  or  water  and  that  they  are  neither  too  far 
apart  nor  too  close  together.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  these  points  should  be  separated  by  g’j  inch.  The 
porcelain  or  mica  insulation  may  have  become  cov- 
ered with  dirt  on  the  outside  of  the  combustion  space 
or  with  oil  or  soot  on  the  ends  which  extend  toward 
the  inside  of  the  cylinder.  The  insulation  should  be 
cleaned  with  gasoline  and  a cloth  or  stiff  brush. 

Carbon  deposit  on  the  spark  plugs  may  be  loosened 
by  allowing  them  to  soak  in  kerosene  for  several  hours. 
While  the  plugs  are  being  examined  it  should  be  noted 
whether  the  porbelain  is  cracked  or  broken,  and  if 
either  of  these  conditions  is  present  the  porcelain 
should  be  replaced  with  a new  one.  In  the  case  of  a 
mica  plug  it  is  possible  that  the  oil  has  crept  in  be- 
tween the  layers  of  mica  and  is  causing  a short-circuit. 
This  is  especially  likely  to  be  true  of  old  plugs.  The 
spark  plugs  should  be  examined  to  see  that  the  points 
are  not  loose  in  the  shell  or  in  the  insulating  core  and 
also  to  see  that  the  core  is  not  loose  in  the  shell,  as 
this  would  produce  the  same  result  as  a loose  point, 
namely,  an  incorrect  gap. 

There  are  but  few  troubles  that  can  affect  the  Ford 
magneto  and  the  most  common  one  of  these  is  that 
caused  by  dirt  collecting  at  the  lower  end  of  the  con- 


194 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


tact  which  is  fastened  in  the  flywheel  housing'  just 
above  the  wheel  and  underneath  the  floor  boards. 

If  the  ear  has  been  in  use  a considerable  length  of 
time,  or  if  the  engine  has  been  disassembled  and  put 
back  together,  it  is  possible  that  the  flywheel  mag- 
nets have  become  weakened  and  in  this  case  it  will  be 
best  to  replace  them  with  new  ones.  If  the  magnets 
have  been  removed  from  the  flywheel  they  may  have 
been  replaced  wrongly  with  respect  to  their  polarity. 
The  magnets  should  be  assembled  on  the  wheel  in  such 
relation  to  each  other  that  the  negative  poles  of  adja- 
cent magnets  are  next  to  each  other  and  this  wiU 
likewise  bring  the  positive  poles  of  adjacent  mag- 
nets together.  The  simplest  way  to  make  sure  that 
this  condition  exists  is  to  hold  the  magnets  close  to 
each  other  while  they  are  off  the  flywheel  and  pick  the 
poles  or  ends  which  do  not  stick  to  each  other  because 
of  the  magnetism.  If  two  magnets  are  held  in  this 
way  with  one  end  of  one  magnet  close  to  one  end  of 
the  other  and  it  is  found  that  these  ends  have  no 
tendency  to  be  drawn  together  then  they  are  both  of 
the  same  polarity,  either  positive  or  negative,  and 
they  should  be  placed  on  the  flywheel  with  these  ends 
close  together. 

Should  the  insulation  of  the  primary  wires  running 
from  the  coil  to  the  commutator  become  worn  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  copper  wire  is  exposed,  the  current 
will  leak  out  or  short-circuit  whenever  contact  with 
the  engine  pan  or  other  metal  parts  is  made.  A steady 
buzzing  of  one  of  the  coil  units  will  indicate  a short 
in  the  wiring.  When  driving  the  ear  the  engine  will 
suddenly  lag  and  pound  on  account  of  the  premature 
explosion.  Be  careful  not  to  crank  the  engine  down- 
ward against  the  compression  when  the  car  is  in  this 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


195 


condition,  as  the  short  is  apt  to  cause  a vigorous  kick 
back. 

The  wires  should  be  examined  to  see  that  none  of 
them  are  disconnected  and  special  notice  should  be 
given  to  those  connected  with  the  timer  or  commu- 
tator. The  wiring  should  be  examined  to  see  that 
there  are  no  loose  terminals  or  loose  ends  at  any  point 
and  that  none  of  the  ends  or  terminals  are  ruhhing 
against  metal  parts  of  the  power  plant.  It  will  some- 
times be  found  that  a wire  is  broken  underneath  the 
insulation  and  this  will  lead  to  trouble,  the  cause  of 
which  is  very  hard  to  locate.  The  only  way  in  which 
such  a wire  may  be  found  is  by  taking  them  one  at  a 
time  and  pulling  while  the  engine  is  running.  If 
pulling  on  any  one  wire  causes  misfiring  it  would 
indicate  that  this  wire  is  defective  underneath  the 
insulation.  All  of  the  wiring  should  be  kept  clean 
and  dry  and  if  any  of  it  is  found  to  be  covered  with 
dirt  or  oil  soaked  it  will  be  best  to  renew  these  parts. 

The  wires  leading  from  the  coil  to  the  spark  plugs 
may  have  become  attached  to  the  plugs  in  the  wrong 
order,  that  is,  an  order  which  does  not  correspond  to 
that  in  which  the  engine  fires.  It  has  been  explained 
that  the  firing  of  the  Ford  engine  is  1,  2,  4,  3,  and 
if  the  wires  are  attached  so  that  the  order  of  sparking 
at  the  plugs  is  different  from  the  one  just  mentioned, 
one  or  more  cylinders  wfill  fail  to  fire.  The  order  in 
which  the  wires  are  connected  may  be  ascertained  by 
removing  the  plugs  from  the  cylinder  and  laying  them 
on  the  metal  of  the  engine  so  that  the  spark  may  be 
seen  to  pass  between  their  points  as  the  engine  is 
cranked.  The  crank  should  be  turned  until  a spark 
passes  in  the  plug  which  was  inserted  in  cylinder  num- 
ber one  next  to  the  radiator.  The  next  plug  to  re- 


196 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


eeive  a spark  should  be  the  one  which  was  in  cylinder 
number  two,  the  next  one  should  have  been  in  cylinder 
number  four  and  the  last  one  in  cylinder  number 
three. 

With  the  vibrators  properly  adjusted,  if  any  par- 
ticular cylinder  fails  or  seems  to  develop  only  a weak 
action,  change  the  position  of  the  coil  unit  to  deter- 
mine if  the  fault  is  actually  in  the  unit.  The  first 
symptom  of  a defective  unit  is  the  buzzing  of  the 
vibrator  with  no  spark  at  the  plug.  Remember  that 
a loose  wire  connection,  faulty  spark  plug,  or  worn 
commutator  may  cause  irregularity  in  the  running 
of  the  engine.  These  are  points  that  should  be  con- 
sidered before  laying  the  blame  on  the  coil. 

While  examining  the  coil  the  following  points  should 
be  looked  for:  First  see  that  the  contact  points  on 
the  vibrators  are  not  worn,  dirty,  stocking  or  pitted. 
If  any  of  these  faults  are  found  the  points  should 
be  cleaned  by  drawing  a piece  of  fine  emery  cloth  be- 
tween them,  first  with  the  emerj'  facing  toward  one 
point  and  then  with  it  facing  the  other.  The  coil  or 
coil  box  may  have  become  wet,  which  will  allow  a 
short  circuit,  and  it  is  also  possible  that  some  of  the 
connections  inside  of  the  coil  box  have  become  loose. 

If  misfiring  occurs  when  running  at  high  speed, 
inspect  the  commutator.  The  surface  of  the  circle 
around  which  the  roller  travels  should  be  clean  and 
smooth  so  that  the  roller  makes  a perfect  contact  at 
all  points.  If  the  roller  fails  to  make  a good  contact 
on  any  one  of  the  four  contact  points  the  correspond- 
ing cylinder  will  not  fire.  Clean  these  surfaces  if 
dirty. 

In  case  the  fiber,  the  contact  points  and  the  roller 
of  the  commutator  are  badly  worn,  the  most  satis- 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


197 


xactory  remedy  is  to  replace  them  with  new  parts. 
The  spring  should  be  strong  enough  to  cause  a firm 
contact  between  the  roller  points  if  they  are  worn  or 
dirty. 

It  is  a well  known  fact  that  in  cold  weather  even 
the  best  grades  of  lubricating  oil  will  congeal  to  some 
extent.  If  this  occurs  in  the  commutator  it  is  very 
apt  to  prevent  the  roller  from  making  perfect  con- 
tact with  the  points  imbedded  in  the  fibre.  This,  of 
course,  makes  starting  difficult  as  the  roller  arm 
spring  is  not  stiff  enough  to  brush  away  the  film  of  oil 
which  naturally  forms  over  the  contact  points.  To 
overcome  this,  as  well  as  any  liability  of  the  contact 
points  to  rust,  use  a mixture  of  twenty-five  per  cent 
kerosene  with  the  commutator  lubricating  oil  which 
will  thin  it  sufficiently  to  prevent  congealing.  In 
starting  the  ear  in  cold  weather  it  may  be  noticed  that 
only  one  or  two  cylinders  will  fire  for  the  first  minute 
or  so.  This  indicates  that  the  timer  is  in  the  condi- 
tion described  above,  and  as  a consequence,  a perfect 
contact  is  not  being  made  on  each  of  the  four  ter- 
minals. 

While  the  commutator  is  being  examined  see  that 
the  roller  is  free  to  revolve  on  its  pin  and  that  the 
roller  arm  does  not  stick  in  one  position.  If  either 
of  these  faults  is  present  the  parts  should  be  cleaned 
and  oiled  and  if  found  necessary  the  spring  tension 
on  the  roller  arm  should  be  increased.  It  is  also 
possible  that  the  roller  arm  or  roller  sleeve  is  loose 
on  the  forward  end  of  the  camshaft  and  this  would 
indicate  play  in  the  key  or  the  nut  which  holds  it  in 
place.  The  fiber  ring  on  the  inside  of  the  timer  shell 
around  which  the  roller  passes  should  be  smooth  and 
should  have  no  ridges  or  depressions.  If  such  condi- 


198 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


tions  are  found  to  be  present  it  ivill  be  best  to  secure 
a new  timer  shell  and  install  it. 

Should  ignition  trouble  be  present  while  batteries 
are  being  used  as  a source  of  current,  the  battery 
should  be  examined  for  low  amperage,  if  of  the  dry 
cell  type,  or  for  low  voltage  if  of  the  storage  type. 
Dry  cells  should  show  an  amperage  of  at  least  six 
for  each  cell,  and  in  the  ease  of  a storage  battery, 
the  voltage  across  the  terminals  should  be  equivalent 
to  two  each  cell  of  the  battery,  which  in  the  case  of 
the  ordinary  three-cell  battery  would  call  for  a ter- 
minal voltage  of  six. 

Dry  cells  used  for  ignition  should  be  examined  to 
see  that  none  of  their  terminals  are  loose  and  that 
there  are  no  broken  connectors  between  the  several 
cells.  The  tenninals  of  either  a dry  cell  battery  or  a 
storage  battery  should  be  clean  and  dry  and  should 
not  be  in  such  a position  that  they  can  touch  any 
metal  part  of  the  ear  or  of  the  battery  box.  The  card- 
board cover  of  a dry  cell  serves  to  insulate  the  zinc 
casing  from  any  other  metal  part  and  this  cardboard 
must  be  whole  and  dry.  In  case  the  covers  are  worn, 
broken  or  wet  they  will  allow  leakage  of  the  current. 

CARBURETOR  TROUBLE 

Every'  possible  carburetor  trouble  must  result  in 
making  the  mixture  either  too  rich  or  too  lean ; that  is, 
it  must  make  the  mixture  such  that  there  is  either 
too  little  gasoline  or  too  much  gasoline  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  air  being  supplied.  It  will  first  be 
necessary  to  decide  whether  the  mixture  is  rich  or 
lean. 

A mixture  that  is  too  thin  and  which  requires  more 
gasoline  to  make  it  right  is  of  course  improved  by 


TROUBLES,  STilPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


199 


turning  the  dash  adjustment  to  the  left,  thus  opening 
the  needle  valve  in  the  carburetor.  A thin  mixture  will 
cause  hard  starting  and  loss  of  power.  It  will  also 
cause  spitting  and  a popping  noise  in  the  carburetor, 
and  while  the  engine  is  running,  it  wiU  probably 
result  in  missing  explosions.  Should  the  engine  be 
in  operation  with  the  exhaust  manifold  removed,  a 
lean  mixture  will  cause  the  exhaust  flame  to  he  yel- 
low in  color.  A correct  mixture  produces  an  exhaust 
flame  which  is  blue  or  purple. 

Too  rich  a mixture  will  result  in  a dense  black 
smoke  from  the  exhaust  and  the  engine  will  become 
greatly  overheated.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  the 
engine  loses  power  and  that  there  is  a peculiar  form 
of  missing  which  recurs  at  regular  intervals  and 
keeps  time  with  the  running  of  the  engine.  This 
missing  might  be  described  as  a galloping  action,  and 
seems  to  result  in  the  omission  of  one  power  stroke  in 
every  second  cycle  of  the  engine.  In  case  the  mixture 
is  too  rich  the  exhaust  will  have  a strong  pungent 
odor  and  there  will  probably  be  considerable  flooding 
from  the  carburetor  after  the  engine  stops.  Should 
the  engine  be  run  with  the  exhaust  manifold  removed, 
the  flame  caused  by  rich  mixture  will  be  red  in  color. 

In  order  to  correct  a wrong  mixture  which  is  due  to 
improper  position  of  the  dash  adjustment  it  will  only 
be  necessary  to  set  this  adjustment  right  and  to  make 
this  right  setting  the  engine  will  have  to  be  started. 
Starting  the  engine  may  be  facilitated  by  choking  the 
carburetor,  which  means  to  shut  off  almost  all  of  the 
incoming  air  by  means  of  the  small  butterfly  valve 
placed  at  the  carburetor  intake  and  operated  from  in 
front  of  the  radiator.  Starting  may  sometimes  he 
made  easier  by  flooding  the  carburetor  in  ease  the 


200 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


instrument  is  provided  with,  a small  pin  above  the 
float  bowl  which,  when  depressed,  pushes  the  float 
down  and  opens  the  float  valve.  Priming  the  cylin- 
ders as  a remedy  for  hard  starting  has  already  been 
mentioned  and  consists  in  putting  about  a spoonful 
of  liquid  gasoline  into  one  or  more  of  the  cylinders 
after  the  spark  plugs  have  been  removed. 

If  the  carburetor  has  been  taken  apart,  or  if  it  is 
known  to  be  badly  out  of  adjustment,  see  that  the 
level  of  the  gasoline  in  the  nozzle  is  about  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  below  the  nozzle  opening.  Next 
close  the  needle  valve  dash  adjustment  tight,  then 
open  it  from  three-fourths  to  one  and  one-fourth  full 
turns.  Petard  the  spark  lever  and  open  the  throttle 
about  one  quarter  of  the  way.  Turn  on  the  switch  and 
start  the  engine.  Slowly  close  the  throttle  until  the 
engine  seems  almost  ready  to  stop.  Then  open  or 
close  the  dash  adjustment  until  the  engine  runs  faster 
again  without  opening  the  throttle.  Close  the  throttle 
a little  more  and  keep  turning  the  needle  valve  one 
way  or  the  other  until  the  engine  runs  as  slow  as  it 
will  run  without  stopping  and  with  the  throttle  as 
far  closed  as  possible.  Set  the  throttle  stops,  and 
the  carburetor  is  adjusted  for  low  engine  speeds. 

Now  advance  the  spark  two-thirds  of  the  way  and 
open  the  throttle  wide  for  a few  seconds  to  see  if  the 
engine  speeds  up.  Do  not  keep  the  throttle  open  and 
allow  the  engine  to  run  fast  or  race  but  for  a few 
seconds,  just  long  enough  to  notice  the  action.  If 
there  is  no  spitting  noise,  close  the  needle  valve  a 
part  of  a turn. 

If  the  engine  runs  too  fast  with  the  throttle  full 
retarded,  unscrew  the  carburetor  throttle  lever  ad- 
justing screw  until  the  engine  idles  at  a suitable  speed. 


TROUBLES,  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES  201 

If  the  engine  chokes  and  stops  when  the  throttle  is 
fully  retarded  the  adjusting  screw  should  be  screwed 
in  until  it  strikes  the  boss,  thus  preventing  the  throttle 
from  closing  too  far.  When  proper  adjustment  has 
been  made  tighten  the  lock-screw  so  that  the  adjust- 
ment will  not  be  disturbed. 

There  are  a number  of  carburetor  troubles  which 
produce  a thin  mixture  and  yet  are  not  due  to  any 
fault  in  the  carburetor  adjustment.  One  of  these 
troubles  is  that  the  shut-otf  valve  underneath  the  fuel 
tank  may  be  partly  closed  or  that  the  fuel  line  may 
be  clogged  with  dirt  or  impurities. 

Similar  trouble  may  be  caused  in  case  the  fuel 
line  is  bent  or  cracked  and  a stoppage  of  the  fuel 
flow  may  be  caused  either  by  an  air  lock  or  a water 
lock.  An  air  lock  is  caused  by  allowing  the  fuel  line 
to  run  upward  and  then  sharply  downward  so  that 
air  may  collect  in  the  pocket  thus  formed.  A water 
lock  may  be  caused  by  allowing  the  fuel  line  to  turn 
sharply  downward  and  then  upward  again,  this  con- 
dition allowing  Water  to  remain  in  the  pocket  formed 
and  the  water  being  heavier  than  gasoline  prevents 
a flow  of  fuel. 

The  presence  of  water  in  the  carburetor  or'  gasoline 
tank,  even  in  small  amounts,  will  prevent  easy  start- 
ing, and  the  engine  will  misfire  and  stop.  As  water  is 
heavier  than  gasoline,  it  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tank,  and  into  the  sediment  bulb  along  with  other  for- 
eign matter.  As  it  is  difficult  to  get  gasoline  absolutely 
free  from  impurities,  especially  water,  it  is  advisable 
to  frequently  drain  the  sediment  bulb  under  the  gaso- 
line tank.  During  cold  weather  the  water,  which  ac- 
cumulates in  the  sediment  bulb,  is  likely  to  freeze  and 
prevent  the  flow  of  gasoline  through  the  pipe  lead- 


202 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


ing  to  the  carburetor.  Should  anjdhing  of  this  kind 
happen  it  is  possible  to  open  the  gasoline  line  by 
wrapping  a cloth  around  the  sediment  bulb  and  keep- 
ing it  saturated  with  hot  water  for  a short  time.  Then 
the  water  should  be  drained  off.  In  event  the  water 
gets  down  into  the  carburetor  and  freezes,  the  same 
treatment  may  be  applied. 

The  spraying  nozzle  of  the  carburetor  has  a very 
small  opening  and  a minute  particle  of  grit  or  other 
foreign  matter  will  clog  up  the  orifice.  The  engine 
will  then  begin  to  misfire  and  slow  down  as  soon  as 
it  has  attained  any  considerable  speed.  This  is  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  at  high  speeds  the  in- 
creased suction  will  draw  the  particles  of  dust  or  dirt 
into  the  nozzle.  By  opening  the  needle  valve  half  a 
turn  and  giving  the  throttle  lever  two  or  three  quick 
pulls  with  the  engine  running,  the  dirt  or  sediment  will 
often  be  drawn  through,  when  the  needle  may  be 
turned  back  to  its  original  place.  If  this  does  not 
accomplish  the  purpose  the  carburetor  should  be 
drained.  Be  careful  not  to  screw  the  needle  valve 
down  too  tight  or  you  will  groove  the  needle  and  valve 
seat. 

Any  leakage  of  air  into  the  inlet  manifold  or  com- 
bustion chamber  will  result  in  a weak  mixture.  Such 
an  air  leak  may  occur  around  the  spark  plugs,  around 
the  joints  in  the  inlet  manifold  or  around  the  carbu- 
retor flanges.  The  gaskets  at  these  last  two  points 
should  be  tightly  secured. 

In  case  of  an  old  ear  an  air  leak  may  occur  around 
loose  throttle  bearings,  and  the  remedy  is  to  bore  out 
the  hole  and  use  a larger  throttle  pivot.  A reduction 
of  the  fuel  flow  may  result  in  case  the  vent  hole 
through  the  fuel  tank  cap  has  become  closed,  as  it  will 


TROUBLES.  SYMPTOMS  AND  REMEDIES 


203 


be  realized  that  gasoline  cannot  flow  out  of  the  tank 
unless  air  can  flow  in. 

There  is  another  class  of  troubles  which  results  in  a 
rich  mixture,  but  these  are  not  due  to  wrong  carbu- 
retor adjustment.  The  float  or  the  float  valve  may  be 
binding,  or  some  of  the  float  valve  parts  may  have  be- 
come loose.  The  float  itself  may  have  become  soaked 
with  gasoline,  and  this  condition  may  be  remedied  by 
thoroughly  drying  the  float  in  a warm  room  and  then 
covering  it  with  shellac.  Too  rich  a mixture  may  be 
caused  by  the  needle  valve  being  worn  in  such  a way 
that  a shoulder  is  formed,  and  the  most  satisfactory 
remedy  is  to  use  a new  valve. 

The  flow  of  gasoline  entering  the  carburetor 
through  the  feed  pipe  is  automatically  regulated  by 
the  float  needle  raising  and  lowering  in  its  seat. 
Should  any  particle  of  dirt  become  lodged  on  the 
seat,  which  prevents  the  needle  from  closing,  the  gaso- 
line will  overflow  in  the  bowl  of  the  carburetor  and 
leak  out  upon  the  ground. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ELECTEIC  STAETING  AND  LIGHTING 

On  the  older  models  of  Ford  ears  the  lighting  sys- 
tem is  made  up  of  three  oil  lamps  and  two  acetylene 
gas  head  lamps.  The  acetylene  lamps  are  supplied 
with  gas  from  a generator  carried  on  the  left  hand 
running  board  of  the  car.  In  the  bottom  of  this  gen- 


Figure  55. — Parts  of  the  Acetylene  Gas  Generator. 


erator  is  a basket  which  should  be  filled  three-fourths 
full  of  lump  carbide,  and  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
generator  is  a tank  which  should  be  filled  with  water. 
A valve  is  provided  which  allows  the  water  to  drip 
onto  the  carbide  and  the  reaction  forms  acetylene  gas 
almost  iimnediately.  This  gas  is  conducted  through 
tubes  and  burns  in  the  lamps  at  jets  especially  con- 
structed for  the  use  of  this  illuminant. 

Should  the  water  valve  become  clogged  the  top  part 
of  the  generator  should  be  removed  and  the  valve  stem 
unscrewed.  Blowing  through  this  valve  opening  will 
then  clear  the  obstruction.  If  the  lights  flicker  it 

204 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


205 


indicates  that  water  has  collected  in  the  tubing,  and 
the  pipes  should  be  disconnected  from  the  lamps  and 
from  the  generator,  after  which  the  water  may  be 


blown  out.  All  of  the  parts  of  the  old  style  acetylene 
generator  are  shown  in  Figure  55. 

On  Ford  cars,  which  were  originally  equipped  with 


206 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


acetylene  lighting,  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  electric 
lights  operated  from  the  magneto,  because  the  mag- 
neto, as  made  at  that  time,  was  designed  only  to  fur- 
nish current  to  make  sparks  for  igniting  the  gas  in 


the  engine  cylinders.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the 
magneto  would  furnish  an  excessive  current ; however, 
all  of  the  electricity  generated  by  the  old  style  mag- 
neto is  needed  when  the  car  is  being  operated  under 


FlRiiro  57. — iKiiltlon  and  I.lKl'Uiig  Parts  on  tlie  Car. 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


20T 


extraordinary  conditions.  For  example,  when  the 
engine  is  running  slowly  and  pulling  hard  all  of  the 
current  furnished  by  the  magneto  is  needed  for  igni- 
tion. 

On  the  newer  models  of  Ford  cars  electric  lighting 
operated  from  the  magneto  is  furnished  as  standard 
equipment.  The  path  taken  by  the  magneto  current 
in  the  new  Ford  lighting  system  is  shown  in  Figure 
56,  Current  starts  from  the  magneto  terminal  about 


Figure  58. — ^Using  Battery  with  Ford  Ignition  and  Lighting 
System. 


the  flywheel,  and  flows  through  the  wire  to  the  mag- 
neto terminal  on  the  coil  box.  Another  wire  is  at- 
tached to  this  coil  box  terminal  and  leads  to  the  light- 
ing switch  on  the  dash.  When  the  switch  is  closed  the 
current  flows  to  the  right  hand  head  lamp  and  passes 
through  the  fllament  in  the  lamp  bulb.  After  passing 
through  the  right  hand  lamp  the  current  flows  through 
a wire  which  connects  the  two  lamps  and  then  passes 
through  the  filament  of  the  bulb  in  the  left  hand  lamp. 
From  the  left  hand  lamp  a connection  is  made  with 
the  metal  of  the  ear  and  current  flows  through  the 
metal  back  to  the  end  of  the  magneto  winding,  which 
is  also  attached  to  metal.  The  appearance  of  the 
lighting  system  on  the  car  is  shown  in  Figure  57. 


'208 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


Batteries  are  not  provided  on  the  Ford  ear  as  stand- 
ard equipment,  and  it  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  light 
the  head  lamps  unless  the  engine  is  running,  and 
causing  the  magneto  to  generate  current.  In  case  a 
storage  battery  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  source  of  igni- 
tion current,  the  head  lamps  may  also  be  operated 
from  this  battery  when  the  magneto  is  not  generating 
current  by  replacing  the  standard  lighting  switch 
with  a double  throw  switch,  and  rearranging  the  con- 
nections so  that  they  are  made,  as  shown  in  Figure  58. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  ATTACHMENTS 

Ford  cars  of  any  model  may  be  equipped  with  a 
system  of  electric  lighting  or  electric  lighting  and 
starting  which  is  attached  to  the  car  after  it  is  built. 
Ford  systems  are  made  by  a number  of  electrical 
manufacturers  and  comprise  many  different  tj’pes  of 
equipment.  The  principles  embodied  in  all  of  the  dif- 
ferent makes  are  similar  regardless  of  the  method  of 
application  selected. 

Any  electric  starting  and  lighting  system  must  first 
provide  a flow  of  electric  current  and  this  flow  is 
secured  from  a dynamo  which  is  driven  from  the  en- 
gine by  means  of  chains,  belts  or  gears. 

Because  of  the  fact  that  the  engine  cannot  always 
be  running  when  current  is  required  for  lighting,  and 
will  never  be  running  when  current  is  requii'ed  for 
starting,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  means  for  storing 
some  of  the  surplus  energj^  made  by  the  d^mamo  while 
it  is  running.  This  energy  is  retained  and  held  ready 
for  use  by  a storage  battery  which  is  a chemical 
device  suitable  for  absorbing  electrical  energj’  and  for 
releasing  this  power  when  it  is  needed.  The  d.^mamo, 
which  is  the  primary  source  of  current,  and  the  bat- 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


209 


tery  which  forms  a reservoir  of  power  are  the  funda- 
mental parts  of  the  whole  system.  It  is  necessary  to 
provide  means  for  controlling  the  current  output  of 
the  dynamo,  means  for  allowing  the  driver  to  light 
the  lamps  or  to  cause  the  starter  to  work,  and  to  pro- 
vide the  parts  which  consume  current.  The  parts 
which  consume  the  electrical  energy  are  the  lamps 
and  the  engine  starting  motor. 

The  dynamo  consists  of  a revolving  element  called 
the  armature  and  this  armature  is  carried  in  such  a 
position  that  it  turns  within  a space  which  is  almost 
completely  surrounded  by  electromagnets.  At  one 
end  of  the  dynamo  armature  is  a ring  composed  of 
a large  number  of  bars  or  strips  of  copper  and  in  con- 
tact with  this  ring  which  is  called  the  commutator, 
are  brushes,  usually  made  from  carbon,  which  collect 
the  electric  current  from  the  commutator  as  fast  as 
it  is  produced  in  the  wires  which  are  a part  of  the 
armature  proper.  From  the  brushes,  connections  lead 
to  the  terminals  of  the  storage  battery  so  that  the 
energy  of  the  electric  current  can  act  on  the  battery 
and  store  the  power  for  future  use.  Attached  to  the 
battery  terminals  are  wires  which  lead  to  the  lamps 
and  the  starting  motor  and  between  these  units  are 
placed  switches  which  give  the  driver  control  of  the 
whole  electrical  system.  The  dynamo  and  battery 
connections  are  shown  in  Figure  59. 

Before  going  further  into  the  workings  of  the  elec- 
trical system  it  will  be  well  to  explain  the  meaning 
of  the  terms  and  words  which  it  will  be  necessary  to 
use  in  telling  of  the  workings  of  these  parts.  Elec- 
tricity cannot  be  measured  in  inches,  pounds  or  gal- 
lons as  can  substances.  Electricity  can  only  be  meas- 
ured by  its  various  effects  on  materials  and  parts. 


210 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


The  two  principal  qualities  of  electricity  which  will 
be  most  often  mentioned  are  its  pressure,  which  is 
expressed  in  a unit  called  volt ; and  its  quantity  ex- 
pressed in  amperes. 

The  voltage  of  a current  will  depend  on  the  con- 
struction of  the  parts  used  in  the  circuit  and  on  the 
speed  at  which  the  dynamo  is  revolving.  The  am- 
perage will  depend  on  the  voltage,  or  pressure,  present 
and  on  the  resistance  to  the  flow  of  current  which  is 


Figure  59. — Lighting  Dynamo  and  Battery  Connections. 


dependent  on  the  wires  or  other  conductors  through 
wdiich  the  electricity  is  passing.  The  resistance  also 
depends  on  the  length  of  the  conductor  through  which 
the  current  must  flow,  a long  conductor  having  a 
resistance  which  becomes  great  as  its  length  increases. 
The  conductors  used  in  automobile  starting  and  light- 
ing systems  are  made  principally  from  copper,  iron 
and  brass. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  voltage  measures  only 
the  pressure  of  the  electricity  and  that  it  corresponds 
to  pounds  per  square  inch  in  measuring  water  press- 
ure. Voltage  does  not  measure  the  rate  of  flow  or 
the  quantity  of  current  flowing  through  a conductor. 
Amperage  measures  only  the  quantity  or  rate  of  flow. 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


211 


Amperage  corresponds  to  gallons  per  minute  flow  in 
measuring  water.  When  the  amperage  of  a current 
is  known  the  total  quantity  of  electricity  may  be  de- 
termined provided  the  time  during  which  it  flows  is 
known. 

In  order  to  make  the  action  of  the  electrical  system 
more  clearly  understood,  the  dynamo  may  be  com- 
pared to  a water  pump  and  the  flow  of  current  from 
the  dynamo  may  be  compared  to  the  flow  of  water 
from  the  pump.  As  the  speed  of  the  water  pump 
increases  the  pressure  of  the  water  will  increase.  Like- 
wise, as  the  dynamo  speed  increases,  the  pressure,  or 
voltage,  of  the  electricity  will  he  increased.  In  either 
case,  as  the  pressure  increases,  the  flow  of  water  or 
electricity  will  be  increased. 

An  uncontrolled  increase  in  voltage  and  amperage 
such  as  would  be  caused  by  an  increase  in  car  speed 
and  dynamo  speed  might  do  damage  to  the  battery 
and  to  other  parts  of  fhe  electrical  system,  and  in 
order  to  prevent  such  damage,  various  methods  are 
employed  to  limit'the  flow  of  current  when  the  dynamo 
speed  increases  above  a certain  point. 

Carrying  out  the  comparison  between  the  dynamo 
and  a water  system,  it  will  be  realized  that  the  water 
pressure  at  the  pump  would  have  to  be  greater  than 
the  pressure  in  the  tank  of  water  in  order  for  the 
pump  to  send  water  into  the  tank,  and  in  the  same 
way  it  is  necessary  that  the  voltage  at  the  dynamo 
be  greater  than  the  voltage  at  the  battery  in  order 
that  current  may  flow  through  the  battery  and  thus 
store  electrical  energy. 

Should  the  speed  of  the  dynamo  fall  below  a cer- 
tain point,  as  it  will  when  the  engine  runs  very  slowly 
or  comes  to  a stop,  the  dynamo  voltage  will  fall  below 


212 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


the  voltage  of  the  battery.  "With  a battery  voltage 
higher  than  the  dynamo  voltage,  the  pressure  at  the 
battery  will  be  higher  than  the  pressure  at  the  djuiamo 
and  the  same  thing  will  happen  as  would  come  to  pass 
should  the  water  pressure  in  a tank  become  higher 
than  the  pressure  from  a pump  connected  with  the 
tank;  namely,  a flow  of  water  from  the  tank  to  the 
pump  or  a flow  of  electric  current  from  the  battery 
to  the  dynamo.  Such  an  action  would  reverse  the 
normal  order  of  things  and  the  battery  would  dis- 
charge its  electrical  energy  so  that  none  would  be 
left  to  do  useful  work  in  starting  the  engine  or  lighting 
the  lamps. 

Such  a reverse  flow  of  current  is  prevented  by  a 
device  called  a cut-out  which  is  usually  acted  upon  by 
the  electrical  pressure  of  voltage  of  the  djmamo.  The 
cut-out  is  a form  of  switch  inserted  between  the 
dynamo  and  battery  and  this  switch  is  open,  so  that 
current  flow  is  prevented,  whenever  the  voltage  of 
the  dynamo  is  below  that  of  the  battery.  Wlien  the 
dynamo  armature  commences  to  revolve,  the  voltage 
commences  to  rise,  and  just  as  soon  as  this  voltage  in 
the  dynamo  reaches  a value  which  is  greater  than  the 
normal  voltage  of  the  battery  connected  with  the 
system,  then  the  cut-out  switch  is  closed  and  current 
flow  takes  place  from  the  djmamo  through  the  bat- 
tery so  that  the  battery  is  charged. 

The  storage  battery  is  really  the  center  of  the  whole 
electrical  system  because  it  is  connected  with  each 
of  the  other  parts.  The  current  generated  by  the 
dynamo  flows  through  the  battery  and  in  doing  so  it 
causes  certain  chemical  changes  to  take  place  in  the 
elements  of  which  the  battery  is  composed.  This 
action  is  called  battery  charging,  and  after  the  action 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING  213 

has  gone  on  for  a certain  period  of  time,  the  elements 
of  the  battery  are  so  chemically  changed  that  they 
contain  an  amount  of  energy,  or  an  ability  to  do 
useful  work,  which  depends  on  the  power  consumed 
by  the  dynamo  in  doing  the  charging. 

After  the  battery  has  been  charged  it  is  capable  of 
causing  a flow  of  electric  current  through  any  con- 


Figure  60. — Lighting  Dynamo  and  Starting  Motor  on  Ford 
Engine. 


ductors  which  may  be  attached  to  its  terminals,  and 
after  such  a flow  of  current  has  continued  for  some 
time,  the  elements  in  the  battery  return  to  their  origi- 
nal state  and  the  battery  is  no  longer  capable  of 
causing  a current  flow.  The  battery  is  then  said  to  be 
discharged  and  it  will  again  be  necessary  to  allow 
the  dynamo  to  act  upon  it  as  before.  In  actual  prac- 
tice on  the  ear,  the  battery  is  never  allowed  to  be 
wholly  discharged,  but  the  dynamo  does  a certain 


214 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


amount  of  recharging  every  time  the  engine  is 
operated. 

The  starting  system  for  the  engine  consists  of  an 
electric  motor  which  is  attached  to  the  battery  by 
means  of  heavy  wires  and  a starting  switch  which  may 
be  closed  by  the  driver  whenever  it  is  desired  to  crank 
the  engine.  The  general  construction  of  the  starting 
motor  is  similar  to  that  of  the  dynamo,  and  in  fact  the 
two  units  are  often  combined  in  one  mechanism  which 
alternately  performs  the  functions  of  a dynamo  and  of 
a starting  motor.  The  difference  between  a djnaamo 
and  a motor  is  that  the  dynamo  is  used  to  convert 
mechanical  power  into  electrical  energy  and  the  start- 
ing motor  converts  electrical  energy  into  mechanical 
power.  One  method  of  dynamo  and  motor  applica- 
tion is  shown  in  Figure  60. 

THE  BATTERY 

The  storage  battery  is  composed  of  plates  made 
from  alloys  and  compounds  of  lead,  these  plates  being 
immersed  in  a dilute  solution  of  sulphuric  acid.  A 
certain  number  of  plates  are  grouped  in  two  sets, 
one  set  being  called  the  negative  group  and  the  other 
the  positive  group.  These  groups  are  placed  inside 
of  a jar  made  from  some  waterproof  and  insulating 
substance  such  as  compounds  of  rubber  or  pitch  or 
of  glass.  "Wlien  the  container  is  filled  with  the  bat- 
tery liquid  the  whole  assembly  is  called  one  cell.  A 
number  of  cells  connected  ■with  each  other  make  up 
the  battery. 

In  order  to  bring  the  elements  of  the  battery  plates 
into  condition  so  that  they  are  capable  of  causing  a 
flow  of  current,  it  is  first  necessary  to  pass  current 
through  them.  The  energy  of  this  current  causes 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


215 


chemical  changes  to  take  place  and  when  these  changes 
are  allowed  to  reverse,  the  battery  discharges  and 
causes  a flow  of  current  through  any  wires  connected 
with  it. 

The  voltage  obtained  from  one  cell  of  a battery  does 
not  depend  on  the  size  or  weight  of  the  plates  or  on 
the  number  of  plates  used  in  the  cell.  Regardless  of 
the  size  the  voltage  of  one  cell  will  be  approximately 
two,  so  that  a battery  composed  of  three  cells  will 
always  be  a six  volt  battery,  one  composed  of  six  cells 
will  be  a twelve  volt  battery,  and  so  on  for  any  number 
of  cells. 

In  order  for  the  above  statement  to  hold  strictly  true 
the  individual  cells  of  one  battery  must  be  connected 
in  series  with  each  other,  that  is,  the  positive  of  one 
cell  must  be  connected  with  the  negative  terminal  of 
the  next  cell  and  the  positive  of  that  cell  with  the  nega- 
tive of  the  next  one.  This  method  of  connecting  adds 
the  voltage  of  one  cell  to  the  ones  connected  with  it, 
so  that  the  total  voltage  of  the  battery  is  equal  to  the 
number  of  cells  multiplied  by  two. 

The  quantity  of  current  that  may  be  secured  from 
a battery  when  fully  charged  depends  on  the  size  of 
the  plates  and  on  the  number  used  in  one  cell.  The 
capacity  of  a battery  or  of  a cell  is  measured  in  am- 
pere hours.  An  ampere  hour  is  the  quantity  of  electric 
current  that  will  pass  through  a conductor  if  a flow 
of  one  ampere  continues  for  one  hour.  An  equal 
quantity  would  pass  were  a flow  of  one-half  ampere 
to  continue  for  two  hours,  or  if  a flow  of  two  amperes 
were  to  continue  for  one-half  hour.  Therefore,  a bat- 
tery rated  at  one  hundred  ampere  hours  will  theoreti- 
cally give  a flow  of  one  ampere  for  one  hundred  hours, 
or  a flow  of  one  hundred  amperes  for  one  hour. 


21G 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


The  efficiency  of  a battery  is  much  greater  at  low 
rates  of  discharge  than  at  high  rates.  The  above 
mentioned  battery  would  give  a flow  of  one  ampere 
for  practically  one  hundred  hours,  but  would  only 
give  a flow  of  one  hundred  amperes  for  a few  minutes, 
because  the  violence  of  the  action  causes  changes  that 
prevent  further  discharge  until  the  battery  has  been 
given  time  to  recuperate  to  some  extent. 

The  rate  of  discharge  from  any  battery  should  not 
exceed  in  amperes  one-eighth  of  the  total  ampere-hour 
capacity  of  the  battery.  Care  should  be  exercised  to 
prevent  the  battery  from  becoming  discharged  to  such 
a point  that  the  voltage  falls  much  below  a total  of 
two  for  each  cell,  because  when  the  discharge  has 
progressed  beyond  this  point,  the  plates  will  change 
in  such  a way  that  it  becomes  very  hard  to  restore 
them  to  their  charged  condition  regardless  of  the 
amount  of  current  flow  given  by  the  djmamo. 

The  mixture  of  water  and  sulphuric  acid  which  is 
placed  in  the  cell  with  the  plates  is  called  the  battery 
electrolyte.  When  the  battery  is  in  a fully  charged 
state  almost  all  of  the  acid  has  been  driven  out  from 
the  material  composing  the  plates  and  is  in  solution 
with  the  water.  As  the  battery  discharges,  the  acid 
leaves  the  water  and  enters  the  plates  so  that  the 
strength  of  the  solution  or  electrolyte  becomes  less 
and  less  as  the  discharge  progresses.  The  condition 
of  charge  of  a battery  may  be  very  closely  gauged  by 
measuring  the  acid  strength  of  the  electrolj'te,  and 
this  is  done  by  measuring  the  speciflc  graffity  of  the 
solution  with  a hydrometer,  as  shown  in  Figure  61. 

The  hydrometer  consists  of  a glass  tube  weighted 
at  its  lower  end  and  provided  with  a graduated  scale 
toward  the  upper  end.  This  tube  is  inserted  into  the 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


217 


electrolyte  and  the  depth  to  which  it  sinks  in  the 
liquid  as  measured  on  the  graduated  scale  indicates 
the  condition  of  charge  or  discharge  of  the  battery. 
Sulphuric  acid  is  nearly  twice  as  heavy  as  water  for 
a given  volume.  The  weighted  tube  will  not  sink  so 


Figure  61. — Battery  Testing  Hydrometer. 

deep  into  a heavy  liquid  as  into  a light  one,  and  it  will 
therefore  not  sink  so  deep  into  the  electrolyte  when 
it  contains  a large  percentage  of  acid  as  when  the 
proportion  of  acid  has  been  reduced.  The  scale  on 
the  tube  is  graduated  from  1.100  to  1.300,  the  1.100 
mark  being  near  the  top  and  the  1.300  being  near  the 
lower  part.  If  the  hydrometer  sinks  down  until  the 


218 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


1.100  point  on  the  scale  is  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid 
surrounding  the  tube,  it  indicates  that  the  electrolyte 
has  become  nearly  pure  water  and  that  the  battery  is 
discharged.  Should  the  1.300  point  on  the  scale  re- 
main near  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  it  indicates  that 
the  solution  is  strong  in  acid  and  that  the  battery  is 
well  charged.  A reading  of  1.200,  which  is  midway 
between  the  other  two,  would  show  that  the  battery  is 
about  half  charged. 

The  hydrometer  itself  is  carried  inside  of  anothef 
tube  of  larger  diameter  and  this  tube,  called  the 
hydrometer  syringe,  is  provided  with  a bulb  at  its 
upper  end  and  with  a rubber-tipped  nozzle  at  its 
lower  end.  Wlien  a battery  or  a cell  is  to  be  tested 
for  its  specific  gravity  the  rubber  bulb  is  squeezed  with 
the  hand  and  most  of  the  air  expelled.  "With  the  bulb 
held  in  this  way  the  rubber  nozzle  is  lowered  through 
a hole  in  the  top  of  the  cell  until  the  opening  is  below 
the  surface  of  the  liquid,  after  which  the  bulb  is  re- 
leased until  a quantity  of  eleetrohde  sufficient  to  fioat 
the  hydrometer  is  drawn  up  into  the  sjwinge.  The 
point  on  the  scale  which  is  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid 
is  then  noted  and  this  is  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
cell  being  tested. 

With  a battery  in  good  condition  and  well  charged 
the  specific  gravity  will  remain  between  1.200  and 
1.300  and  should  preferably  remain  around  1.250. 
Should  the  gravity  fall  to  1.150  or  below,  the  cell  is  in 
danger  of  becoming  permanently  damaged  and  the 
electrical  system  should  be  given  attention. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  the  level  of  the  electrohde 
in  all  of  the  cells  of  a battery  be  kept  above  the  tops 
of  the  plates,  and  this  is  done  by  adding  distilled 
water  at  regular  intervals.  This  will  require  the  addi- 


ELECTBIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


219 


tion  of  water  about  every  week  or  ten  days  in  summer 
and  from  every  two  weeks  to  once  a month  in  cold 
weather.  Acid  or  electrolyte  should  never  be  added  to 
a cell  under  ordinary  conditions  in  order  to  bring  the 
gravity  to  the  desired  point  because  there  will  be  just 
as  much  acid  in  the  cell  as  there  was  originally  and 
the  addition  of  more  will  only  serve  to  destroy  the 
plates.  The  water  will  evaporate  from  the  electro- 
lyte, making  it  necessary  to  add  more  to  replace  this 
evaporation,  but  the  acid  will  remain  unless  spilled 
or  lost  through  leakage  from  a broken  jar  in  a cell. 
If  the  gravity  becomes  low  it  does  not  indicate  that 
acid  should  be  added  but  that  the  cell  or  the  battery 
needs  more  charging. 

The  efficiency  of  a cold  battery  is  much  lower  than 
that  of  a warm  battery  and  in  cold  weather  the  battery 
requires  either  more  charging  or  else  less  discharging 
to  keep  it  in  good  condition.  This  condition  is  made 
worse  because  of  the  fact  that  the  dynamo  does  not 
normally  give  so  great  an  output  during  cold  weather 
as  in  warm.  Lamps  should  be  economically  used  in 
cold  weather,  and  if  convenient,  bulbs  of  lower  candle- 
power  should  be  substituted.  It  will  be  advisable  to 
start  the  engine  by  hand  on  cold  mornings  or  at  least 
to  prime  the  cylinders  so  that  less  cranking  is  required. 

LAMPS  AND  WIRING 

The  same  size  and  type  of  lamp  bulbs  should  always 
be  used  in  making  replacements  as  were  originally 
supplied  with  the  equipment.  Bulbs  of  larger  size 
will  impose  a load  on  the  system  for  which  it  may 
not  have  been  designed  and  bulbs  of  either  larger  or 
smaller  size  than  those  originally  fitted  may  serve  to 
throw  the  lamps  out  of  focus.  Bulb  bases  in  common 


220 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


use  are  of  two  principal  types,  one  for  use  with  what 
is  called  a two-wire  system  and  the  other  for  use  with 
a one-wire  or  ground-return  system.  The  two-wire 
base  has  two  small  contact  points  which  touch  two 
spring  contacts  in  the  socket  into  which  the  bulb 
fastens.  One-wire  bases  have  but  one  contact  point 


Figure  C2. — Double  and  Single  Contact  Lamp  Bases. 


and  this  is  in  the  center  of  the  base.  A two-wire  bulb 
will  not  work  in  a one-wire  socket,  neither  will  a one- 
wire  bulb  work  in  a two-wire  socket.  The  two  bases 
are  shown  in  Figure  62. 

Should  the  surfaces  of  the  reflectors  in  the  lamps 
become  dirty  or  tarnished  they  may  be  cleaned  by 
blowing  the  dust  from  the  parts,  and  if  this  does  not 
do  the  work,  it  is  pex’missible  to  wash  them  with  a 
slow  flowing  stream  of  clean  cold  water.  The  reflectors 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


221 


should  then  be  allowed  to  dry  by  the  action  of  the  air 
and  should  not  be  wiped,  because  every  time  they 
are  touched,  small  scratches  are  left  and  their  effi- 
ciency is  impaired.  If  the  surface  which  is  silvered 
has  become  very  dull  it  may  be  cleaned  with  alcohol 
used  on  a clean  soft  chamois  skin  held  in  such  a posi- 
tion that  the  skin  is  free  from  wrinkles.  The  reflectors 
should  be  wiped  off  with  a rotary  motion  and  working 
from  back  to  front  or  by  strokes  starting  from  the 
bulb  and  ending  near  the  outer  edge.  Polishing  may 
be  done  with  the  chamois  skin  moistened  with  alcohol 
and  then  covered  with  a small  quantity  of  jeweler’s 
rouge.  This  will  remove  any  dirt  or  tarnish  and  the 
polishing  may  be  completed  with  a dry  chamois  skin 
and  more  rouge. 

In  order  to  get  the  best  effect  of  the  lamps  in  light- 
ing the  road  surface  they  must  be  properly  focused. 
This  is  done  by  changing  the  position  of  the  bulb  with 
reference  to  the  reflector  and  the  exact  method  em- 
ployed depends  on  the  type  of  lamp  applied  to  the 
car.  The  focusing  screw  may  be  found  near  the  upper 
edge  of  the  reflector  and  behind  the  front  glass  or  may 
be  located  behind  the  reflector  and  attached  to  the 
socket  into  which  the  bulb  fits.  Several  methods  of 
focusing  are  shown  in  Figure  63. 

The  lamps  are  focused  by  disconnecting  the  wires 
from  one  of  them  and  working  with  the  one  remaining 
until  it  is  properly  set,  then  removing  the  wires  from 
the  one  already  focused  and  reattaching  them  to  the 
first  one.  The  car  must  be  taken  to  a place  where 
there  is  very  little  if  any  outside  light.  A large  dark 
room,  or  the  open  road  on  a dark  night,  make  the  best 
places  to  do  this  work.  The  adjustment  should  be 
moved  until  the  light  cast  on  the  road  is  clear  and 


222 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


free  from  dark  spots  or  rings  and  even  after  this 
effect  is  secured  it  will  be  best  to  make  a trial  under 
driving  conditions  before  finally  deciding  that  the 
adjustment  is  correct.  After  the  bulbs  have  been 


Figure  63. — Focusing  . Adjustments  : 1 — Correct  and  Incorrect 

Paths  for  Light  Rays  iA,  Correct;  B or  C,  Incorrect).  2 — 
Adjusting  Screw  Above  Reflector.  3 — Adjustment  in 
Lamp  Housing.  4 — Adjustment  in  Socket. 


properly  focused  the  lamps  may  be  moved  on  their 
brackets  or  the  brackets  may  be  moved  until  the  beam 
of  light  from  each  one  strikes  the  road  at  the  point 
desired  by  the  driver. 

Two  distinct  systems  of  wiring  are  in  use,  one  called 
the  two-wire  method  and  the  other  one-wire  or  ground- 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


223 


return  method.  With  the  two-wire  method  there  are 
two  complete  conductors  between  battery  and  the 
lamps  and  other  electrical  units  on  the  car.  One  of 
these  wires  connects  the  units  with  the  positive  side 
of  the  battery,  while  the  other  carries  the  negative 
side  of  the  circuits.  In  the  one-wire  system  one  side, 
either  positive  or  negative,  of  the  battery  is  connected 
with  the  frame  and  metal  work  of  the  ear  and  the 
metal  is  thus  allowed  to  act  in  place  of  one  of  the 
wires  used  in  the  two-wire  system.  All  of  the  other 
electrical  units  included  in  the  one- wire  connections 
are  then  connected  with  the  metal  of  the  car  so  that 
this  side  of  the  circuit  is  completed.  The  remaining 
side  of  the  battery  is  connected  through  the  wiring  and 
switches  with  the  lamps,  dynamo,  starting  motor,  or 
other  electrical  parts. 

Because  of  the  possibility  of  some  of  the  insulation 
becoming  stripped  from  the  wires  and  causing  a short 
circuit  with  the  one-wire  system,  fuses  are  generally 
inserted  between  the  battery  and  the  various  parts 
comprising  the  system.  A fuse  consists  of  a short 
length  of  wire  made  from  metal  which  will  carry  the 
normal  amperage  supposed  to  flow  through  its  circuit 
but  which  will  become  heated  and  melt  apart  when 
the  amperage  exceeds  this  amount  to  any  great  ex- 
tent. This  wire  is  generally  enclosed  in  a tube  of 
fibre  or  glass  so  that  the  heat  generated  just  before 
melting  will  not  set  fire  to  any  gasoline  vapor  that 
might  be  present  around  the  car. 

Fuses  are  rated  according  to  the  amperage  or  cur- 
rent flow  that  they  are  designed  to  carry  safely.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  pay  any  attention  to  the  voltage 
of  the  system  in  selecting  fuses.  The  proper  size  to  use 
will  depend  on  the  type  of  system  employed  and  on  the 


224 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


size  and  current  consumption  of  the  current-consuming 
devices  such  as  lamps,  horns,  etc.  For  a six-volt  equip- 
ment it  will  be  safe  to  use  the  following  size  fuses: 
Head  lamps,  15  amperes ; side  lamps  alone,  5 to  8 
amperes ; tail  and  dash  lamps,  5 amperes ; all  lamps,  20 
amperes;  horn,  15  amperes;  charging  circuits,  20  to 
40  amperes. 

A fuse  must  never  be  replaced  with  a piece  of  wire 
or  with  another  fuse  of  larger  capacity,  because  this 
will  remove  all  protection  for  the  battery  and  it  may 
easily  become  ruined  should  a short  circuit  occur. 

TROUBLE  LOCATION 

The  most  commonly  encountered  form  of  electrical 
trouble  in  starting  and  lighting  systems  is  that  known 
as  a short  circuit.  This  is  a connection  between  two 
wires  or  conductors,  one  positive  and  the  other  nega- 
tive, such  that  the  current  flow  may  take  place  from 
the  battery  or  dynamo  and  And  a complete  return  path 
back  to  the  source  without  passing  through  the  cur- 
rent-consuming devices  or  without  doing  the  work 
which  it  would  do  were  the  short  circuit  not  present. 
This  simply  means  that  the  current  finds  a shorter 
path  than  the  one  which  it  should  take. 

Should  the  current  carrying  conductor  of  either 
positive  or  negative  polarity  come  into  direct  contact 
with  the  frame  or  metal  work  of  the  car  when  this 
metal  work  forms  a part  of  the  electrical  system,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  one-wire  system,  there  is  a form 
of  short  circuit  called  a ground. 

In  ease  some  conductor  becomes  broken  or  when- 
ever there  is  a conducting  path  which  is  not  completed 
from  the  battery  or  dynamo  to  the  current-consuming 
device  and  then  back  to  the  source,  the  trouble  is 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


225 


called  an  open  circuit.  There  will  be  no  flow  or  cur- 
rent through  any  part  of  a circuit  that  is  open  at 
any  point. 

High  resistance  in  any  part  of  the  system  will  lead 
to  trouble  and  may  be  the  result  of  poorly  made  or 
dirty  contacts  in  which  the  current  carrying  surfaces 
are  not  brought  tightly  together.  This  so  reduces  the 
area  of  the  conductors  that  the  flow  of  current  is 


Figure  64.- — Wiring  Troubles  : G,  Ground  ; 0,  Open  Circuit ; 

R,  High  Resistance ; 8,  Short  Circuit. 


greatly  hindered  and  the  electricity  is  unable  to  do 
its  proper  work.  Wires  that  are  loose  or  that  are 
partly  broken  will  cause  high  resistance  and  dirty, 
pitted  or  corroded  parts  at  the  wire  terminals  or  in 
any  other  part  of  the  apparatus  will  cause  similar 
difficulties.  The  troubles  just  mentioned  are  shown  in 
Figure  64. 

Because  of  the  fact  that  almost  any  trouble  that 
may  come  to  the  electrical  equipment  will  cause  some 
change  in  current  flow  or  pressure,  the  subject  of 
indicating  instruments  is  closely  allied  with  that  of 
trouble  location. 


226 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


Ammeters  are  provided  with  a pointer  or  hand 
which  moves  from  side  to  side  with  increase  or  de- 
crease of  flow  through  the  circuit  in  which  the  instru- 
ment is  placed.  The  pointer  moves  across  a scale 
graduated  in  amperes  or  fractions  and  multiples  of 
amperes  and  having  a zero  point  at  or  near  the  center 
of  the  graduations.  The  pointer  will  move  one  way 
from  this  zero  point  with  flow  of  current  in  one  direc- 
tion ; for  instance,  into  the  battery,  and  will  move  in 
the  opposite  direction  from  the  zero  point  when  cur- 
rent flows  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  would  be  the 
ease  during  battery  discharge.  This  tji)e  of  instru- 
ment is  known  as  a “zero  center”  ammeter.  If  the 
meter  were  built  in  such  a way  that  the  hand  stood 
at  one  side  of  the  scale  when  at  zero,  it  would  only 
measure  the  flow  of  current  in  one  direction  and 
would  not  be  so  well  suited  for  attachment  on  the  car. 

An  ammeter  when  placed  on  a car  should  be  so 
connected  that  it  will  measure  all  of  the  current  flow- 
ing into  the  battery  from  the  djmamo  and  so  that  it 
will  measure  all  current  lea\ung  the  battery  except 
that  used  for  starting.  An  ammeter  sufficiently  great 
in  capacity  to  measure  the  large  flow  during  the  crank- 
ing operation  would  have  a scale  too  coarsely  dhuded 
to  measure  the  small  currents  used  for  charging  and 
lighting.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  And  a wire  on 
the  car  that  carries  all  of  the  charging  current  and 
all  of  the  lighting  and  other  accessories’  current,  but 
none  of  the  starting  current.  This  may  usually  be 
done  by  following  either  one  of  the  large  battery 
cables  until  a smaller  line  branches  from  this  cable. 
The  ammeter  may  then  be  attached  in  this  smaller 
line  and  just  as  close  to  the  large  cable  as  possible. 
Provided  the  wire  selected  carries  all  of  the  lighting 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


22T 


and  charging  current  and  none  of  the  starting  current, 
the  ammeter  will  then  indicate  the  net  charge  and  dis- 
charge other  than  for  starting. 

Should  the  charging  wires  and  the  lighting  wires 
be  connected  to  the  large  cables  from  the  battery  at 
different  points  along  these  heavy  cables,  it  will  not 
be  possible  to  attach  an  ammeter  to  show  both  charge 
and  discharge.  This  will  also  be  the  case  with  a 
great  many  combined  motor  and  dynamo  systems  in 
which  no  line  can  be  selected  that  carries  both  charg- 
ing and  lighting  currents  and  that  does  not  carry  the 
starting  current.  It  will  often  be  found  possible  to 
attach  an  ammeter  so  that  it  will  show  charge  into 
the  battery,  but  no  discharge  for  the  lamps  and  other 
current-consuming  devices.  It  will  also  be  possible  to 
attach  an  ammeter  to  one  side  of  a separate  dynamo 
so  that  the  dynamo  output  will  be  indicated;  this 
method,  however,  is  of  comparatively  little  value  be- 
cause it  is  the  current  entering  the  battery  that  is 
more  essential  than  that  furnished  by  the  dynamo. 
In  the  absence  of  special  directions  for  attaching  an 
ammeter  it  will  be  necessary  to  follow  the  wiring 
as  described  or  else  to  examine  a wiring  diagram  of 
the  car  or  system  in  question  until  a line  is  found 
that  does  not  carry  the  starting  current  but  that  does 
carry  the  currents  whose  value  it  is  desired  to  measure. 

With  the  ammeter  connected,  some  lamps  should  be 
turned  on  and  the  direction  in  which  the  needle  moves 
should  be  noted.  If  the  scale  is  marked  “Charge” 
and  “Discharge,”  the  needle  should  move  toward 
‘ ‘ Discharge,  ’ ’ and  if  it  does  not  do  so,  the  wires  should 
be  removed  from  the  ammeter  terminals  and  inter- 
changed with  each  other.  In  case  the  face  of  the 
meter  is  not  marked  the  connections  should  be  made 


228 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


in  such  a way  that  the  needle  will  swing  to  the  right 
of  zero  for  charge  and  to  the  left  for  discharge. 

Indicating  Instrument  Faults. — Because  of  the  fact 
that  ammeters,  voltmeters,  etc.,  are  primarily  designed 
to  tell  what  is  happening  and  to  aid  in  locating  trouble, 
it  should  not  be  assumed  that  these  units  themselves 
are  free  from  error.  Outside  of  trouble  caused  by 
open,  short  or  grounded  circuits  and  circuits  of  high 
resistance  in  the  wiring  and  terminal  connections  of 
these  instruments,  they  may  develop  trouble  within 
their  mechanism.  Should  an  ammeter  be  subjected 
to  a current  much  greater  than  it  is  designed  to  carry, 
such  as  would  be  the  ease  were  an  ordinary  instrument 
connected  in  the  starting  circuit,  the  current-carrjdng 
coils  would  be  burned  out  and  the  meter  would  have 
to  be  rebuilt  before  further  use  could  be  made  of  it. 

When  an  ammeter  or  voltmeter  is  in  proper  working 
order,  the  hand  should  remain  at  zero  with  one  or  both 
of  the  wires  removed  from  its  terminals.  Should  there 
be  an  error  at  this  time,  the  number  of  amperes  or 
volts  should  be  noted  and  allowed  for  in  future  read- 
ings. The  hand  should  move  quickly  from  point  to 
point  and  should  come  to  rest  within  a reasonable  time. 

In  case  of  failure  to  light,  the  bulbs  themselves 
should  be  examined  to  make  sure  that  they  are  not 
broken  and  that  the  filaments  are  not  burned  out. 
Should  the  lamp  have  been  fitted  with  bulbs  designed 
for  a voltage  lower  than  that  used  on  the  car,  the  fila- 
ment will  be  burned  out,  while  bulbs  designed  for  a 
higher  voltage  than  that  used  will  burn  dimly  or  may 
not  light  at  all. 

It  is  quite  possible  for  dirt,  loose  wire  strands  or 
faulty  construction  to  cause  an  accidental  short  cir- 
cuit in  the  bulb  base  or  in  the  socket  into  which  the 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


229 


base  fits.  Such  a fault  will  probably  result  in  such  a 
heavy  fiow  of  current  at  the  defective  point  that  heat- 
ing will  result,  and  at  the  same  time  all  the  other 
lamps  on  that  circuit  or  line  will  burn  dimly  or  not 
at  all.  It  may  be  found  that  the  small  contact  points 
on  the  bottom  of  the  bulb  base  do  not  make  contact 
with  the  plungers  or  springs  in  the  socket. 

The  springs  may  be  bent  up  slightly  or  the  contact 
points  may  be  extended  by  the  addition  of  a drop  of 
solder  to  each.  If  the  socket  contains  spring  plun- 
gers, they  should  be  pressed  down  and  examined  for 
binding  or  dirt  that  will  cause  sticking  when  the  bulb 
base  is  pressed  home.  If  the  plungers  can  be  pressed 
down  and  then  remain  down,  it  indicates  that  the 
springs  have  become  broken  or  are  binding,  and  a new 
socket  is  the  most  satisfactory  remedy.  The  interior 
of  the  bulb  sockets  should  be  kept  free  from  dirt  and 
foreign  matter  of  all  kinds,  because  the  result  may  be 
either  a short  circuit  or  an  open  circuit  for  that  par- 
ticular lamp.  It  is  customary  to  provide  the  lamps 
with  connectors  into  which  the  wires  fasten  and  which 
complete  the  circuit  by  means  of  plungers  or  pins  that 
fit  into  holes  in  a second  part  of  the  connector.  The 
same  remarks  respecting  dirt  and  poor  connections 
apply  to  these  outside  connectors  as  to  the  bulb  sock- 
ets. Should  the  lamps  flicker  and  occasionally  go  out 
altogether,  the  wiring  at  the  sockets  and  at  the  con- 
nectors should  be  examined  for  loose  strands.  In 
case  a part  of  the  copper  is  found  exposed,  it  should 
be  wrapped  with  insulating  tape  to  prevent  a repeti- 
tion of  the  trouble  caused  by  the  movement  and  jarring 
of  the  car  while  in  motion. 

In  case  the  candle  power  of  the  lamps  has  been 
increased,  or  in  case  additional  lamps  or  other  accesso- 


230 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


ries  have  been  added  to  any  of  the  circuits,  it  is  ciuite 
possible  that  the  wire  originally  used  may  be  too  small 
for  the  added  load.  Lamp  circuits  should  be  made 
with  wire  not  smaller  than  No.  14  gauge,  and  12 
gauge  will  be  safer  in  case  of  any  added  load.  “Wires 
of  opposite  polarity  should  not  be  run  so  close  together 
that  they  touch  unless  they  are  bound  together  with 
tape  or  fasteners,  beeause  of  the  chafing  that  will  re- 
sult. In  ease  it  is  necessary  to  run  lines  through 
places  where  they  will  become  wet  or  oily,  the  wiring 
should  be  enclosed  in  metal  conduits  or  by  circular 
loom,  and  the  openings  through  which  the  wires  enter 
and  leave  the  protecting  coverings  should  be  tightly 
taped. 

A large  number  of  systems  include  busbars,  junc- 
tion blocks  or  boxes  and  distribution  panels  at  the 
terminal  posts  of  which  several  lines  meet  and  are  con- 
neeted  together.  These  points  of  connection  may 
develop  short  circuits  between  the  several  cables  of 
different  circuits,  or  may  contain  accidental  grounds 
on  the  metal  work  of  the  car.  Loose  strands  of  wire 
should  be  carefully  guarded  against,  and  all  such  wire 
ends  should  be  fitted  with  metallic  terminal  pieces 
that  hold  all  the  wire  strands  by  means  of  the  solder 
used  in  making  the  attachment.  It  is  often  found 
that  dirt,  oil  or  moisture  enters  these  connection  boxes 
through  the  wire  openings,  and  in  case  the  junctions 
ure  located  at  points  exposed  to  such  trouble,  it  will 
“be  well  to  tape  each  line  where  it  enters  the  enclosed 
portion  of  the  junction. 

Should  the  lamps  flicker  or  go  out  entirely,  it  is 
possible  that  the  trouble  will  be  found  in  the  lighting 
switches.  These  switches  are  simple  in  construction 
and  their  action  may  be  understood  in  each  case  by 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


231 


an  examination.  The  contacts  should  be  examined  to 
make  sure  that  they  close  their  respective  circuits  and 
to  make  sure  that  the  leaves  are  not  bent  or  binding 
and  that  the  surfaces  are  clean  and  bright.  The  mov- 
ing parts  of  the  switch  may  have  become  loose  so  that 
they  make  only  an  intermittent  connection  while  the 
car  is  in  motion,  and  all  of  the  internal  parts  should 
be  moved  by  hand  to  determine  whether  this  trouble 
is  present.  The  terminal  studs  and  nuts  should  be 
watched  for  looseness  or  breakage,  either  external  or 
internal,  and  in  case  of  any  doubt  as  to  the  proper 
connections  being  made,  a wiring  diagram  for  the  sys- 
tem being  used  should  be  consulted. 

Any  failure  of  the  dynamo,  cut-out,  regulating 
device  or  charging  wiring  will  result  in  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  battery  electrolyte  becoming  abnor- 
mally low,  and  in  the  voltage  of  the  battery  falling 
below  two  for  each  cell.  As  far  as  the  wiring  is  con- 
cerned, the  same  advice  as  that  given  for  the  lighting 
circuits  may  be  applied  to  this  ease.  Other  troubles 
may  come  from  faulty  condition  of  the  dynamo 
brushes,  commutator,  armature  or  fields,  or  from 
faults  in  the  cut-out  and  regulator. 

With  the  brushes  exposed,  their  holders  should  be 
examined  to  see  that  the  pivoted  arms  are  free  to  swing 
back  and  forth,  and  that  sliding  brushes  do  not  bind 
or  wedge  in  any  position.  Such  binding  of  the  brush 
itself  may  be  remedied  by  carefully  dressing  the  sides 
with  a fine  file.  Attached  to  each  brush  or  to  the 
brush  holder  is  a short  length  of  flexible  wire  called 
the  brush  pigtail.  These  small  wires  must  not  be 
broken  and  their  connections  must  be  clean  and  tight 
at  each  end. 

Either  the  brush  itself  or  else  the  brush  holder  is 


232 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


held  by  a coiled  or  flat  spring  so  that  the  brush  bears 
on  the  commutator  surface  with  a tension  just  suffi- 
cient to  cause  the  brush  end  to  make  good  contact  at 
all  armature  speeds. 

These  brush  springs  should  not  be  bent,  loose,  broken 
or  binding,  and  should  have  sufficient  tension  to  cause 
a good  Arm  connection  to  be  maintained,  but  should 
not  be  set  up  so  tight  that  there  is  danger  of  the  brush 
cutting  into  the  commutator  surface. 

The  brushes  should  be  replaced  with  new  ones  when 
worn  down  nearly  to  the  holder  or  spring,  and  in 
making  such  a replacement  the  safest  method  is  to 
secure  the  new  brushes  from  the  makers  of  the  car  or 
the  makers  of  the  electrical  equipment.  As  a general 
rule  it  may  be  said  that  none  but  carbon  or  carbon 
composition  brushes  should  be  used,  because  of  the 
fact  that  brushes  made  from  copper  or  copper  alloys 
tend  to  cut  into  the  commutator  surface  and  cause 
serious  damage  and  rapid  wearing.  Even  with  carbon 
brushes  in  use,  care  must  be  exercised  to  see  that  the 
material  is  very  fine  and  of  smooth  grain.  Brushes 
that  are  light  gray  in  color  and  that  show  a granular 
or  rough  surface  are  not  safe  to  use. 

Should  the  brushes  he  found  in  good  condition,  the 
commutator  should  be  examined  next.  Its  surface 
should  be  very  smooth  and  should  preferably  have  a 
glazed  appearance  and  a dark  brown  color.  In  case 
the  surface  of  the  segments  is  found  to  be  dirty, 
scratched,  rough  or  pitted,  it  maj^  he  dressed  with 
fine  sandpaper  by  following  the  method  described  in 
the  chapter  on  dynamos.  Excessive  sparking  will 
cause  burning  and  pitting  of  the  cummutator  surface, 
and  this  sparking  will  usually  he  found  to  result  from 
the  use  of  brushes  of  improper  material  or  from  the 


ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 


233 


fact  that  the  brushes  do  not  make  good  contact  with 
the  commutator. 

The  segments  forming  the  commutator  should  be 
examined  to  see  that  none  of  them  are  projecting 
above  the  surrounding  surfaces  and  that  all  are  up 
even  with  the  curve  of  the  commutator.  These  troubles 
may  he  corrected  by  turning  the  commutator  in  a 
lathe,  hut  if  the  condition  is  the  result  of  loose  seg- 
ments or  fastenings,  the  armature  should  be  sent  to  its 
makers  for  repairs.  The  small  wires  that  connect  the 
segments  with  the  armature  coils  should  be  watched 
to  see  that  they  are  unbroken  and  well  insulated. 
Torn  or  broken  insulation  may  be  replaced  by  taping 
and  then  shellacing  over  the  surface  of  the  tape.  If 
the  connecting  wires  are  broken  they  should  be  fast- 
ened in  place  with  hard  solder  or  silver  solder. 

The  starting  system  consists  of  the  motor,  the  start- 
ing switch,  the  wiring  and  the  driving  parts.  Elec- 
trical trouble  may  be  present  in  the  motor,  switch  or 
wiring,  and  mechanical  trouble  may  occur  in  the  driv- 
ing mechanism. 

The  starting  switch  contacts  may  be  making  poor 
connection  because  of  wear,  looseness  or  bending,  or 
the  contact  surfaces  may  be  dirty  or  pitted  from  spark- 
ing. The  terminal  connections  of  the  large  cables  on 
the  starting  switch  should  be  examined  for  loose  wire 
strands,  accidental  grounds  or  short  circuits,  and 
broken  or  loose  fastenings.  The  wiring  is  subject  to 
the  same  troubles  as  found  in  the  charging  or  lighting 
circuits,  but  because  of  the  heavy  conductors  and  thick 
insulation  used  such  faults  will  be  of  less  common 
occurrence  in  the  starting  system  than  in  other  parts 
of  the  equipment. 

The  parts  of  the  starter  drive  system  should  he  kept 


234 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


clean  and  any  sliding  surfaces  should  be  lubricated 
with  heavy  oil  or  by  raeans  of  grease  placed  in  the 
cups.  This  lubrication  should  be  cared  for  at  least 
every  week  if  trouble  is  to  be  avoided.  It  may  be 
found  that  drive  shafts  have  become  bent  through 
binding  or  improper  use  of  the  starting  pedal  and  in 
some  cases  it  will  be  found  that  gear  shifting  and 


Figure  65. — Driving  Parts  of  Lighting  Dynamo  and  Starting 
Motor. 

switch  return  springs  are  not  heavy  enough  for  the 
work  to  be  done,  especially  on  new  equipments  before 
the  parts  have  been  fully  worked  in.  Over  running 
clutches  should  be  lubricated  with  vaseline,  or  rather 
grease  of  good  quality,  and  the  starting  pedal  should 
never  be  held  in  the  starting  position  long  enough  to 
cause  the  clutch  to  be  run  at  high  speed.  This  would 
surely  result  in  burning  the  grease  and  the  final  result 
will  be  a badly  damaged  or  ruined  clutch.  The  driv- 
ing parts  of  a dynamo  and  motor  are  shown  in 
Figure  65. 


CHAPTER  IX 


TEUCK  AND  TRACTOE  ATTACHMENTS 
TRUCK  ATTACHMENTS 

The  Ford  car  may  be  converted  into  a truck  or 
delivery  car  having  a load  capacity  of  from  1,000  to 
3,000  pounds  by  making  certain  changes  in  the  run- 
ning gear,  the  rear  axle  and  the  transmission  units. 
These  changes  are  made  by  adding  to  the  Ford  as 
originally  built,  any  one  of  a great  many  adapters 
of  various  forms  which  have  been  designed  and  are 
marketed  by  companies  making  a specialty  of  this 
work. 

A Ford  car  thus  converted  into  a truck  is  able  to  do 
the  work  of  two  average  teams  of  horses  more  effi- 
ciently and  usually  at  a saving  of  expense.  While 
the  horse-drawn  vehicle  can  hardly  make  more  than 
twenty  miles  a day,  a truck  of  this  type  can  easily 
make  from  fifty  to  sixty. 

The  radius  in  which  a horse  and  wagon  can  be  used 
in  deliveries  is  not  much  more  than  two  miles  around 
the  point  from  which  deliveries  are  to  be  made,  while 
a motor  truck  is  able  to  cover  an  area  four  times  as 
great.  The  service  given  by  a truck  is  superior  to 
horse  delivery  because  it  is  not  so  much  affected  by 
hot  weather  or  cold  or  by  additional  work  imposed  at 
holiday  and  rush  seasons;  in  fact,  a truck  may  be 
worked  for  twenty-four  hours  at  a stretch  should  the 
necessity  arise. 

The  cost  of  upkeep  on  a motor  truck  is  always  in 
proportion  to  the  work  being  done,  whereas  the  cost 

235 


236 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


is  just  about  as  much  to  keep  a borse  that  is  idle  as 
one  that  is  putting  in  full  days  of  work. 

Considering  the  work  done,  the  cost  of  delivering 
goods  is  cut  to  almost  half  by  the  substitution  of  motor 
delivery  for  horse-drawn,  and  the  original  investment 
by  combining  a Ford  car  with  a truck  attachment  is 
but  little  more  than  that  represented  in  a team  of 
horses,  a wagon  and  their  accessories. 

The  great  majority  of  the  converters  are  designed  to 
make  this  capacity  one  ton,  although  there  is  a decided 
tendency  toward  somewhat  heavier  units.  An  advan- 
tage generally  claimed  for  the  converted  truck  with  its 
comparatively  small  size  is  that  two  or  three  of  these 
units  may  be  used  in  place  of  one  ordinary  truck  of 
three  or  four  tons  capacity.  This  fleet  of  smaller  ears 
forms  a more  flexible  equipment  and  one  that  more 
easily  handles  emergency  loads  and  conditions  than 
does  the  single  large  truck.  The  only  offset  to  this 
advantage  is  that  more  drivers  are  required  and  the 
greater  number  of  units  would  require  somewhat 
larger  storage  space. 

Because  the  construction  of  the  truck  attachment  is 
generally  of  a heavier  character  than  the  construction 
used  in  the  original  Ford  car,  the  attachment  will 
generally  outwear  the  power  plant  and  front  running 
gear.  When  this  happens  the  part  of  the  Ford  car 
which  was  used  in  making  the  converted  truck  may 
be  replaced  with  another  similar  part,  either  a new 
Ford  chassis  or  else  a second-hand  outfit  that  is  in 
good  enough  condition  to  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Some  of  these  adapters  make  but  little  alteration  in 
the  ear,  while  others  make  such  changes  that  but 
little  is  left  of  the  original  chassis  except  the  power 
plant,  the  clutch  and  the  transmission.  The  Ford  car 


TRUCK  AND  TRACTOR  ATTACHMENTS  23T 

is  designed  to  carry  five  persons,  four  besides  the 
driver.  Its  normal  load  capacity  is  therefore  but 
little  more  than  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  To 
make  the  load-carrying  ability  equal  to  two,  three  or 
four  times  this  limit  requires  strengthening  of  the 
rear  wheels  and  in  most  cases  the  rear  axle  also. 

The  parts  of  the  running  gear  which  are  affected 
by  the  alterations  include  the  frame,  the  springs,  the 
wheels  and  usually  the  method  of  carrying  the  pro- 
pulsive effort  between  the  rear  axle  and  the  frame. 
In  some  cases  these  changes  also  affect  the  gear  ratio, 
the  wheel  base,  the  rear  axle  and  the  wheels.  The 
Ford  chassis  may  be  left  almost  intact,  so  that  it  may 
be  reconverted  into  a pleasure  car  with  comparatively 
little  work,  while  in  other  adaptations  the  changes  are 
of  more  permanent  nature  and  make  it  practically 
impossible  to  use  again  the  Ford  in  its  original  con- 
dition. All  of  these  systems  have  the  advantage  of 
producing  a commercial  car  at  a cost  much  lower  than 
that  at  which  any  standard  truck  may  be  bought. 

The  cost  of  making  such  a change  includes  the  price 
of  the  adapter,  which,  according  to  the  type  selected, 
may  be  anywhere  between  fifty  and  four  hundred  dol- 
lars. It  is  then  necessary  to  add  the  cost  of  making 
the  change  and,  again  depending  on  the  type  being 
used,  this  item  may  call  for  an  expenditure  covering 
from  a few  hours  to  two  days  labor.  A part  of  this, 
cost  may  then  be  offset  by  disposing  of  the  unused 
portions  of  the  chassis  when  the  attachment  is  of  a 
type  in  which  all  of  the  original  Ford  car  is  not  used. 

A great  majority  of  the  outfits  which  are  offered 
are  designed  to  extend  the  original  frame  so  that  it 
becomes  long  enough  to  bring  the  load  well  back  over 
the  rear  axle  and  at  the  same  time  accommodate  a 


238 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


long  body  so  that  sufficient  loading  space  is  secured. 
Such  a lengthening  of  the  frame  may  be  accomplished 
in  any  one  of  three  ways.  The  first  and  simplest 
method  adds  a long  side  rail  to  the  Ford  frame  as 
originally  built  and  makes  this  addition  at  the  rear 
end,  as  shown  in  Figure  66.  Another  method  consists 
of  cutting  the  Ford  frame  near  the  center  and  adding 
a new  length  at  this  point.  The  third  method,  and  the 
one  most  generally  adopted,  is  that  in  which  a new 
frame  is  fitted  around  the  outside  of  the  original 
member,  fastening  near  the  dash  or  even  farther  for- 
ward, and  extending  outward  and  back  to  give  the 
length  desired.  This  added  frame  is  made  either  from 
a hot  rolled  section  of  channel  steel  or  else  from  a cold 
pressed  steel  piece  of  the  same  tjT>e  as  used  in  pleasure 
cars  and  in  most  standard  truck  frames. 

The  addition  to  the  frame  is  of  much  greater 
strength  than  the  Ford  frame  and  serves  to  strengthen 
and  make  the  whole  new  chassis  more  rigid  and  better 
able  to  stand  up  in  commercial  work.  This  strength 
is  sometimes  still  further  added  to  by  trussing  under- 
neath the  new  side  members  so  that  the  truss  rods 
serve  to  support  a great  part  of  the  load  and  to  dis- 
tribute it  along  the  frame’s  length.  The  new  part  of 
the  frame  may  be  permanently  riveted  in  place  when 
the  new  assembly  is  made  or  may  be  bolted  to  the  Ford 
chassis.  The  method  of  riveting,  and  sometimes  the 
bolted  fittings,  call  for  drilling  the  old  frame.  In 
other  designs  of  bolted  on  parts  new  holes  are  required. 

In  some  of  the  attachments  the  original  springs  are 
used  to  carry  the  extra  load  by  adding  one  or  more 
new  leaves  to  them.  In  other  cases  the  original  springs 
are  dispensed  with  altogether  and  new  ones  are  fitted 
to  the  new  frame  extension.  The  new  springs  are 


TRUCK  AND  TRACTOR  ATTACHMENTS 


239 


Figure  66. — Extended  Ford  Frame  and  Lengthened  Shaft. 


240 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


generally  of  the  semi-elliptic  type  and  run  lengthwise 
of  the  car,  being  attached  to  the  frame  ahead  of  and 
back  of  the  axle.  Additional  spring  suspension  may 
be  provided  by  inserting  a cross-member  in  the  frame 
so  that  this  member  is  directly  above  the  rear  axle. 
A transverse  spring  is  then  attached  to  this  cross- 
member of  the  frame  so  that  the  outer  ends  of  the 
spring  rest  on  the  axle  near  its  outer  end  whenever  a 
heavy  load  is  carried.  The  transverse  spring  and  the 
semi-elliptic  springs  on  the  sides  of  the  frame  may 
also  be  combined  so  that  the  system  forms  a platform 
suspension. 

The  standard  Ford  wheelbase  of  one  hundred  inches 
is  not  always  of  sufficient  length  to  accommodate  the 
desired  length  of  body  and,  this  condition  makes  it 
necessary  in  a majority  of  the  attachments  to  increase 
the  distance  between  the  front  and  rear  axles  so  that 
it  becomes  anywhere  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  inches,  depending  on  the  work  which  it  is 
desired  to  do.  A majority  of  the  adapters  provide 
wheelbases  in  the  neighborhood  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  inches.  This  change  in  length  makes  it 
possible  to  use  bodies  which  give  from  six  to  twelve 
feet  of  clear  loading  space  back  of  the  driver’s  seat. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  carry  as  great  a percentage 
of  the  load  as  possible  on  the  rear  axle  of  the  attach- 
ment, thus  relieving  the  front  end,  which  remains  as 
in  the  Ford  car,  of  all  additional  load.  It  is  generally 
found  that  the  center  of  the  body  is  brought  directly 
over  the  rear  axle  so  that  with  the  load  evenly  dis- 
posed the  added  weight  is  all  borne  by  the  rear  axle. 
Damage  may  be  easily  done  to  the  front  end  of  the 
combination  by  placing  all  of  the  load  ahead  of  the 
rear  axle.  This  will  place  a large  part  of  the  strain 


TRUCK  AND  TRACTOR  ATTACHMENTS 


241 


on  the  front  axle  and  tires  and  under  these  conditions 
they  cannot  stand  np.  When  a truck  of  this  type  is 
loaded  it  should  always  be  done  so  that  the  load  is 
centered  over  the  axle  and  if  it  is  necessary  to  have 
more  weight  either  forward  or  back  then  the  addi- 
tional amount  should  be  placed  back  of  the  axle. 

In  case  the  converted  Ford  is  designed  to  carry 
comparatively  light  loads,  the  original  rear  axle  gear 
ratio  of  3.63  to  1 is  retained,  this  giving  the  same 
road  speed  as  obtained  with  the  Ford  touring  car. 
In  case  the  load  is  to  be  comparatively  heavy,  that  is, 
one  ton  or  more,  the  gear  ratio  is  changed  so  that  it 
is  between  6 to  1 and  9 to  1.  This  alteration  gives 
increased  power  but  with  a corresponding  reduction 
in  road  speed. 

There  are  five  distinct  methods  of  driving  the  rear 
road  wheels  in  a Ford  attachment.  The  original  bev- 
eled gears  may  be  retained,  double  side  chains  may 
be  used,  either  an  internal  gear  or  an  external  gear 
rear  axle  may  be  used  or  a worm  driven  unit  may  be 
attached.  The  Ford  bevel  gear  rear  axle  has  already 
been  described  and  therefore  needs  no  further 
explanation. 

With  double  side-chain  drive,  the  Ford  rear  axle 
is  attached  to  the  frame  of  the  converter  and  is  then 
used  in  the  same  way  that  a jackshaft  would  be  used 
in  a chain-driven  truck.  Between  the  engine  and  the 
ends  of  the  Ford  axle  there  is  of  course  the  bevel  gear 
reduction  that  has  already  been  incorporated  in  the 
axle.  By  using  the  chain  sprockets  of  various  relative 
sizes  it  is  possible  to  increase  the  gear  ratio  to  almost 
any  desired  amount,  for  instance,  using  front  sprock- 
ets of  half  the  size  of  those  placed  on  the  rear  wheels 
would  double  the  gear  ratio,  making  it  about  6i/4  to 


242 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


1.  The  chains  used  are  of  the  roller  type  and  are 
generally  made  of  a very  generous  size,  so  that  they 
should  give  but  little  cause  for  trouble  in  service. 

The  construction  of  the  working  parts  of  the  in- 
ternal gear  type  of  rear  axle  is  shown  in  Figure  67 
and  the  external  appearance  of  such  an  axle  is  shown 
in  Figure  68.  The  internal  gear  rear  axle  consists 
of  a solid  load-carrying  member  generally  made  of 


Figure  67. — Operating  Parts  of  Internal  Gear  Rear  Axle. 


I-beam  section,  and  attached  to  this  solid  part  is  a 
jackshaft  which  may  be  furnished  complete  with  the 
attachment  or  which  may  be  formed  by  attaching  the 
rear  axle  of  the  Ford  car  to  the  I-beam  cross-piece.  In 
either  case  a double  gear  reduction  is  secured,  first 
at  the  center  of  the  axle  by  means  of  the  bevel  gears, 
and  second  at  the  hubs  of  the  road  wheels  by  the  spur 
gear  and  internally  toothed  drum. 

The  road  wheels  are  carried  on  the  outer  end  of  the 
solid  part  of  the  axle,  and  attached  to  the  hub  and 
spokes  of  the  wheels  is  the  internal  gear  shown  in 
Figure  67.  This  internal  gear  is  driven  by  means  of 


TRUCK  AND  TRACTOR  ATTACHMENTS 


243 


a small  spur  pinion  carried  at  the  outer  end  of  the 
live  part  of  the  axle.  The  relative  size  of  the  internal 
gear  and  the  spur  pinion  determines  the  secondary- 
gear  reduction. 

The  most  noticeable  feature  of  the  internal  gear 
form  of  drive  is  that  it  provides  a solid  member  for 
carrying  the  load  and  a mechanically  separate  power 
transmitting  axle  attached  to  the  solid  member.  The 
power  transmitting  axle  is  relieved  of  all  carrying 
strain  and  is  simply  used  for  propulsion. 


Figure  68. — Internal  Gear  Rear  Axle. 


The  external  gear  type  is  somewhat  similar  in  con- 
struction to  the  internal  gear,  except  that  the  inter- 
nally toothed  drum  on  the  rear  wheels  is  replaced  by 
an  external  or  spur  gear. 

Some  of  the  Ford  attachments  make  use  of  a worm- 
driven  type  of  rear  axle,  and  this  construction,  of 
course,  dispenses  with  all  of  the  original  rear  construc- 
tion of  the  Ford  car.  The  worm-driven  axle  has  the 
advantages  of  simplicity  and  strength  and  gives  very 
complete  protection  to  all  moving  parts.  Excellent 
results  are  secured  from  worm  drive  because  of  the 
comparatively  large  gear-tooth  contact  which  gives 
long  life.  The  worm  drive  is  the  only  system  which 
provides  a single  reduction  and  at  the  same  time 


244 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


allows  a great  difference  between  the  speed  of  the 
engine  and  that  of  the  road  wheels. 

There  are  two  distinct  methods  of  carrjdng  the 
driving  power  from  the  rear  axle  to  the  frame  of  the 
car.  With  one  system  there  are  links  or  pivoted  rods 
attached  at  their  forward  ends  to  the  frame  and  at 
the  rear  to  either  end  of  the  axle.  These  are  called 
radius  rods  and  are  always  used  in  chain-driven  cars, 
so  that  the  distance  of  the  rear  axle  from  the  frame 
may  be  altered  and  the  stretch  of  the  chains  compen- 
sated for. 

The  other  type  of  drive  is  through  the  load-carrying 
springs  and  is  oftentimes  called  Hotchkiss  drive.  The 
Hotchkiss  drive  provides  a simple  and  inexpensive 
method  of  making  the  necessary  connection  and  the 
flexibility  of  the  springs  serves  in  a great  measure 
to  relieve  the  mechanism  from  shocks.  The  radius 
rod  drive  forms  a connection  which  is  entirely  sepa- 
rated from  the  springs  and  therefore  does  not  impose 
any  additional  load  on  the  springs  or  on  their  hangers 
or  connections. 

The  Ford  service  brake,  which  consists  of  a drum 
and  band  in  the  transmission,  is  generally  retained 
when  the  car  is  converted  into  a commercial  vehicle, 
and  this  brake  provides  a very  powerful  retarding 
effort  because  the  drum  operates  at  engine  speed  and 
between  the  drum  and  the  road  wheels  is  interposed 
the  total  gear  reduction  by  whatever  method  secured. 
The  power  of  the  service  brake  is  therefore  multiplied 
by  the  gear  reduction.  In  case  the  Ford  rear  axle  is 
used  as  a jackshaft,  the  rear  axle  brake  is  sometimes 
used  or  it  may  be  diseoimected  and  disregarded.  When 
this  brake  is  used  it  is  affected  by  the  gear  reduction 
which  affects  its  leverage.  This  gear  reduction,  of 


TRUCK  AND  TRACTOR  ATTACHMENTS 


245 


course,  depends  upon  the  relative  size  of  the  chain 
sprockets.  Practically  all  truck  attachments  provide 
an  entirely  new  brake  system  attached  to  the  rear  hubs 
of  the  new  truck  wheels,  and  these  brakes  may  either 
be  operated  by  a foot  pedal  or  by  the  hand  lever  which 
is  already  on  the  Ford  car. 

The  simplest  and  incidentally  the  least  expensive  of 
adapting  a Ford  car  for  delivery  work  is  that  of 
attaching  an  additional  set  of  rear  springs  which 
attach  directly  to  the  body  and  which  are  supported 
by  specially  designed  housings  carrying  the  wheel 
hubs  so  that  the  weight  of  the  load  is  carried  first 
through  the  springs  and  steel  housing  directly  in  the 
wheel  hubs  and  does  not  come  on  the  Ford  rear  axle. 
This  method  is  illustrated  in  Figure  69.  With  such 
a device  the  wood  wheels  with  which  the  Ford  is 
equipped  may  be  replaced  with  new  ones  made  of 
steel,  which,  of  course,  increases  the  strength.  A 
gear  reduction  slightly  in  excess  of  that  found  in  the 
Ford  car  is  sometimes  effected  by  using  a rear  wheel 
of  smaller  diameter.  In  case  of  one  outfit  this  wheel 
diameter  is  made  twenty-four  inches  in  place  of  the 
original  thirty,  which  would  reduce  the  speed  to  such 
an  extent  that  with  the  engine  running  at  the  number 
of  revolutions  which  would  correspond  to  twenty 
miles  an  hour  with  the  touring  car,  the  actual  speed 
with  the  smaller  wheel  would  be  about  sixteen  miles 
an  hour. 

Another  class  of  converters  is  that  in  which  the 
wheelbase  of  the  Ford  is  lengthened  so  that  the  re- 
modeled car  will  accommodate  a longer  body  than  one 
which  could  be  used  when  the  distance  between  the 
axles  is  only  one  hundred  inches.  Such  a device  does 
not  increase  the  load  capacity  in  pounds,  but  does 


246 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


increase  it  in  cubic  feet.  These  extension  attachments 
consist  of  an  additional  length  of  steel  channel  and  of 


Figure  69. — Section  Through  Reinforced  Wheel  and  Spring 
Support. 

those  parts  which  are  necessary  to  allow  the  rear  axle 
to  he  placed  farther  from  the  engine.  This  requires 
a shaft  which  attaches  to  the  rear  end  of  the  trans- 


TRUCK  AND  TRACTOR  ATTACHMENTS 


247 


mission  and  which,  carries  the  power  from  this  point 
back  to  the  forward  end  of  the  original  driveshaft, 
which  is  now  a considerable  distance  away  from  the 
rear  of  the  transmission.  This  type  is  shown  in 
Figure  70. 


Figure  70. — Ford  Frame  Extended  by  Addition  at  Center. 


The  type  of  truck  attachment  which  was  first  intro- 
duced and  which  early  attained  the  widest  popularity 
is  that  which  is  chain  driven.  Wliile  all  of  the  chain- 
driven  units  are  more  or  less  similar  in  external  ap- 
pearance, a careful  examination  shows  many  points  of 
importance  at  which  one  make  differs  from  another. 
In  some  of  these  attachments  the  forward  chain  sprock- 
ets are  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  Ford  axle  which  is 


248 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


TRUCK  AND  TRACTOR  ATTACHMENTS 


249 


being  used  as  a jackshaft  and  are  in  such  a position 
that  the  chain  is  in  line  with  the  old  rear  wheel.  This 
construction  allows  the  new  rear  wheels  on  the  truck 
attachment  to  be  further  apart  than  the  standard 
tread  of  the  Ford  ear,  so  that  the  tread  of  the  new  unit 
becomes  more  like  that  used  on  some  of  the  larger 
trucks,  that  is,  farther  across  from  wheel  to  wheel. 
With  other  constructions  the  sprockets  or  the  sprocket 
carrier  which  goes  on  the  end  of  the  Ford  axle  jack- 
shaft  is  so  designed  that  the  teeth  which  carry  the 
chain  are  brought  closer  to  the  frame  so  that  the  new 
rear  wheels  may  have  the  standard  tread,  which  is 
fifty-six  inches.  A standard  form  of  chain-driven 
adapter  is  shown  in  Figure  71. 

TRACTOR  ATTACHMENTS 

The  Ford  car  or  its  power  plant  may  be  made  to 
serve  as  a tractor  of  either  one  of  two  principal  forms. 
One  method  provides  a strongly  built  rear  axle  giving 
a very  great  reduction  in  speed  and  so  designed  that 
this  rear  axle  of  the  tractor  unit  serves  as  the  front 
support  for  a wagon  or  truck  body.  The  rear  wheels 
of  the  wagon  or  truck  are  usually  placed  almost  in 
the  center  of  the  load  carrying  space  or  platform  so 
that  nearly  the  whole  load  is  home  by  the  rear  axle 
of  the  load  carrying  member,  leaving  only  that  part 
required  for  proper  balancing  to  be  carried  by  the 
rear  axle  of  the  tractor  to  which  the  Ford  power  plant 
has  been  attached. 

This  construction  will  allow  the  carrying  of  loads 
up  to  five  tons  which  are  moved  by  the  Ford  engine. 
In  order  t6  secure  sufficient  power  for  such  work  the 
engine  is  allowed  to  run  at  a speed  that  would  corre- 
spond to  about  twenty-five  miles  per  hour  in  the  Ford 


250 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


car  -used  as  a pleasure  vehicle.  At  this  engine  speed 
the  tractor  will  move  between  six  and  eight  miles  per 
hour,  which  serves  to  multiply  the  effective  power 
three  or  four  times  with  a proportionate  reduction 
in  road  speed  of  the  device. 

The  power  may  be  carried  from  the  engine  to  the 
tractor  axle  by  means  of  chain,  internal  gear  or  worm 
drive ; the  only  requirement  being  that  the  gear 
reduction  be  great  enough  for  the  work  to  be  done. 
Because  of  the  comparatively  high  engine  speed  with 
low  vehicle  speed  it  is  often  found  that  the  standard 
Ford  cooling  system  as  designed  for  the  pleasure  ear 
is  not  effective  in  the  new  work,  and  in.  this  ease  it  is 
possible  to  add  a pump  to  the  water  system  which 
will  force  the  fluid  through  the  engine  jackets  and 
radiator  at  much  greater  speed  than  is  found  with  the 
thermo-syphon  principle,  and  with  accordingly  greater 
cooling  effect.  In  some  designs  of  tractor  attach- 
ments an  addition  is  also  made  to  the  oiling  sj’stem  so 
that  the  lubricant  is  driven  to  the  bearings  in  greater 
quantity  than  in  the  original  construction. 

With  any  form  of  commercial  car  it  is  desirable 
that  the  unit  be  kept  below  a certain  predetermined 
safe  maxiin  of  road  and  engine  speed.  This  limit  is 
usually  secured  by  the  use  of  a governor  of  any  one 
of  the  many  forms  in  general  use.  The  use  of  a 
governor  is  especially  desirable  in  tractor  work  because 
the  very  low  road  speed  foiuns  a constant  temptation 
for  the  driver  to  increase  the  engine  speed  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  trip  will  be  made  in  less  time,  but  at 
the  expense  of  the  mechanical  parts  of  the  power 
plant  which  are  not  designed  for  such  hea^y  work 
combined  with  high  rotative  speed. 

A second  form  of  tractor  into  which  the  Ford  car 


TRUCK  AND  TRACTOR  ATTACHMENTS 


251 


may  be  fitted  as  the  power  element  is  especially 
designed  and  suited  for  farm  work.  In  this  ease  the 
rear  end  of  the  pleasure  car  chassis  is  fitted  into  two 
wheels  of  very  large  diameter  and  the  rear  axle  of  the 


car  is  attached  to  gearing  in  these  wheels  so  that,  with 
a normal  engine  speed,  the  tractor  travels  at  from  two 
to  four  miles  an  hour.  This  type  is  shown  in 
Figure  72. 

The  tractor  wheels  may  follow  any  of  the  generally 
accepted  types  of  design  for  this  class  of  work  and 


252 


FORD  MOTOR  CAR 


the  connection  between  the  Ford  rear  axle  shafts  and 
the  tractor  wheels  is  generally  secured  by  some  modi- 
fied form  of  internal  or  external  gear  drive,  rather 
than  through  chains  or  a worm  and  worm  wheel  drive. 
This  form  of  tractor  is  able  to  pull  a very  heavy  load 
at  low  speed  or  is  able  to  do  plowing  or  any  of  the 
other  classes  of  work  for  which  other  farm  tractors 
of  low  and  medium  power  may  be  used. 


INDEX 


Page 

Acetylene  gas  generator 204 

Advance  of  spark 41 

Ammeter  226 

Anti-freezing  solutions 104 

Axle,  front 70 

rear  67 

Battery  214 

connections  209 

system  45 

Battery  testing  hydrometer 217 

Battery  with  ignition  and  lighting  system 207 

Bearing  adjustment 144 

Bearings  142,  167 

front  wheel 71 

scraping  149 

Brakes  162 

Brake,  rear  wheel 82 

Braking  system 81 

Carbon  121 

deposit,  prevention  of 123 

removal  130 

Carburetor  adjustment 29,  155 

Carburetor  and  fuel  system 25 

Carburetor  trouble 198 

Care  of  car 105 

Casings  173 

Chain  drive 241 

Chassis  11 

Clutch  56,  156 

Cold  weather  procedure 102 

Commutator  39 

oiling  108 

parts  of 152 

Compression  loss 128 

Compression  stroke 16 

Construction  of  Ford  engine 24 

Control  11 

Control  pedals  of  transmission 58 

Cooling  system 48 

Cranking  engine 88 

Current  paths 43 

Differential  63 

Differential  spider  and  gears 65 

Drive  system 11 

Drive,  triangular 62 

Driving  85 

Driving  and  control 77 

Driving  parts  of  lighting  dynamo  and  starting  motor 234 

Driving  system 60 


253 


254 


INDEX 


Page 

Dynamo  connections 209 

Electric  starting  and  lighting 204 

Engine  v 11 

auxiliaries  151 

construction  24 

four-cycle  17 

four-cylinder  21 

order  of  firing 23 

removing  from  frame 125 

sudden  stopping  of 177 

Exhaust  manifold 28 

stroke  17 

valve  timing 132 

Firing  order  of  engine 23 

Flywheel  13 

Focusing  lamps 221 

Four-cycle  engine 17 

Four-cylinder  engine 21 

Frame  75 

Front  axle 70 

Front  axle  and  steering  gear 165 

Fuel  tank 27 

Fuel  supply 31 

Fuel  system 27 

Fuses,  use  of 223 

Gas  generator,  acetylene 204 

Gears  54 

Gear,  steering 77,  165 

General  instructions 114 

Grinding  valves 138 

Hydrometer  216 

Ignition  adjustment 151 

circuit  36 

coil  35 

commutator  40 

system  32 

trouble  191 

wiring  44 

Indicating  instrument  faults 228 

Inlet  manifold 28 

stroke  13 

valve  timing 133 

Inner  tube  cuts  and  tears 172 

Inner  tube  punctures 172 

Internal  gear  rear  axle 242 

Internal  gear  tractor 251 

Joint,  universal 60 

Damp  bases 220 

Lamp  focusing  adjustments 221 

Lamps  and  wiring 219 

Levers,  spark  and  throttle 84 

Lighting  dynamo 213 

electric  204 

electric  attachments 208 

trouble  224 

Lubrication  118 

Magneto  33 

Manifolds,  exhaust  and  inlet 28 

Muffler  23 

care  of 153 

Noise  in  engine 189 


INDEX 


255 


Page 

Oiling  chart 106 

system  47 

the  commutator 108 

One-wire  method 222 

Overheating  of  engine 186 

Pedals,  control,  of  transmission 58 

Piston  rings 14,  127 

Planetary  gears  in  transmission 54 

Power  elements  of  an  engine 15 

Power  loss  in  engine 179 

Power  of  tractor 252 

Power  plant 9 

repair  125 

Power  stroke 16 

Punctures,  inner  tube , 172 

Radiator  repair 154 

Radius  rods 70 

Rear  axle 67 

Rear  axle  and  brakes ; 162 

internal  gear 242 

Removal  of  carbon 130 

Removing  engine  from  frame 125 

Repair  of  power  plant 125 

or  radiator 154 

Retard  of  spark 41 

Reversing  95 

Revolution  15 

Running  gear 11,  69 

Running  gear  adjustments 156 

Scraping  bearings 149 

Sediment  trap 27 

Setting  timing  gears 137 

Skidding  93 

Spark  advance  and  retard 41 

Spark  and  throttle  levers 84 

Spark  plugs 43 

Spindle  and  bearings,  front  wheel 71 

Springs  166 

front  and  rear 75 

Starting  and  lighting  trouble 224 

Starting  car 89 

Starting,  electric 204 

Starting  motor 213 

Steering  gear 77,  165 

wheel  78 

Stopping  91 

Storage  battery 212,  214 

Stroke  and  revolution 15 

Stroke,  compression 16 

exhaust  17 

inlet  15 

power  16 

Suspension,  three-point 75 

Throttle  levers 84 

Timing,  exhaust  valve 132 

gears  137 

inlet  valve 1.33 

valve  131 

Tires  169 

Tractor  attachments 235,  249 

Tractor,  internal  gear 251 


256 


INDEX 


Pme 

Transmission  and  clutch 156 

Transmission  and  running  gear  adjustments 156 

Transmission  band  adjustments 161 

Transmission  system 52 

Triangular  diive  62 

Trouble  in  lighting  and  starting 224 

Troubles,  symptoms  and  remedies 175 

failure  of  engine  to  start 175 

sudden  stopping  of  engine 177 

engine  loses  power 17!) 

engine  overheats 186 

engine  noise 18!) 

ignition  trouble 191 

carubuetor  trouble 198 

Truck  and  tractor  attachments 235 

Turning  80 

Two-wire  method 222 

Universal  joint 60 

Upkeep  and  care 105 

Upkeep,  systematic 112 

Valves  18 

action  19 

grinding  138 

timing  131 

Vibrator  37 

Vulcanizing  171 

Wheelbase,  lengthening  for  truck  attachments 240 

Wheels  and  bearings 167 

Wheel,  steering 78 

Wiring  219 

Wiring  of  ignition  and  lighting  system 205 

Wiring  systems 222 

troubles  225 


’■•r' 


^ V. 


V 


) 


i 


